to the inheritance & remales, who usually take equal shares | in each degree. The necessity for a sole succession has, for example, introduced succession by primogeniture among females in the case of the inheritance of the Crown, and a similar necessity led to the maxim of the feudal law that certain dignities and offices, castles acquired for the defence of the realm, and other inheritances under "the law of the sword," should not be divided, but should go to the eldest of the co-heiresses (Bracton, De Legibus, ii. c. 76; Co. Litt., 165a). There are also many other special customs by which the ordinary rule of primogeniture is varied. It may be remarked that the English law of inheritance of land creates a double preference, subject to certain exceptions and customs, in favour of the, male over the female and of the first-born among the males. This necessitates the rule of representation by which the issue of children are regarded as standing in the places of their parents, called "representative primogeniture." The rule appears to have been firmly established in England during the reign of Henry III., though its application was favoured as early as the 12th century throughout the numerous contests between brothers claiming by proximity of blood and their nephews claiming by representation, as in the case of King John and his nephew Prince Arthur (Glanvill, vii. c. 3; Bracton, De Legibus, ii. c. 30).

See Pollock and Maitland, History of English Law; K. E. Digby, History of the Law of Real Property; Sir H. Maine, Ancient Law and Early History of Institutions; C. S. Kenny, Law of Primogeniture in England.

PRIMROSE. The genus Primula contains numerous species distributed throughout the cooler parts of Europe and Asia, and found also on the mountains of Abyssinia and Java; a few are American. They are herbaceous perennials, with a permanent stock from which are emitted tufts of leaves and flower-stems which die down in winter; the new growths formed in autumn remains in a bud-like condition ready to develop in spring. They form the typical genus of Primulaceae (q.v.), the floral conformation of which is very interesting on several accounts independently of the beauty of the flowers. The variation in the length of the stamens and of the style in the flowers of Primula has attracted much attention since Charles Darwin pointed out the true significance of these varied arrangements. Briefly it may be said that some of the flowers have short stamens and a long style, while others have long stamens, or stamens inserted so high up that the anthers protrude beyond the corolla tube, and a short style. Gardeners and florists had for centuries been familiar with these variations, calling the flowers from which the anthers protruded "thrum-eyed" and those in which the stigma appeared in the mouth of the tube "pin-eyed." Darwin showed by experiment that the most perfect degree of fertility, as shown by the greatest number of seeds and the healthiest seedlings, was attained when the pollen from a short-stamened flower was transferred to the stigma of a short-styled flower, or when the pollen from the long stamens was applied to the long style. As in any given flower the stamens are short (or low down in the flower-tube) and the style long, or conversely, it follows that to ensure a high degree of fertility cross fertilization and this is effected by the transfer of the pollen from one flower to another by insects. Incomplete fertility arises when the stigma is impregnated by the pollen from the same flower. The size of the pollen-grains and the texture of the stigma are different in the two forms of flower (see figure under PRIMULACEAE). The discovery of the physiological significance of these variations in structure, which had long been noticed, was made by Darwin, and formed the first of a series of similar observations and experiments by himself and subsequent observers (see Darwin, Different Forms of Flowers, &c.). Among British species may be mentioned the Common Primrose (P. vulgaris); the cowslip (P. veris); the true Oxlip (P. elatior), a rare plant only found in the eastern counties; and the common

must occur,

'Lat. primula: Ital. and Span. primavera: Fr. primevère, or in some provinces primerole. Strangely enough, the word was applied, according to Dr Prior, in the middle ages to the daisy (Bellis perennis), the present usage being of comparatively recent origin.

oxlip, the flowers of which recall those of the common primrose, but are provided with a supporting stem, as in the cowslip; it is, in fact, a hybrid between the cowslip and the primrose. In addition to these two other species occur in Britain, namely, P. farinosa, found in Wales, the north of England and southern Scotland, and P. scotica, which occurs in Orkney and Caithness. These two species are found also in high Arctic latitudes, and P. farinosa, or a very closely allied form, exists in Fuegia.

The Auricula (q.v.) of the gardens is derived from P. Auricula, a yellow-flowered species, a native of the Swiss mountains. The Polyanthus (q.v.), a well-known garden race, is probably derived from a cross between the primrose and cowslip. The Himalayas are rich in species of primrose, often very difficult of determination or limitation, certain forms being peculiar to particular valleys. Of these P. denticulata, Stuartii, sikkimmensis, nivalis, floribunda, may be mentioned as frequently cultivated, as well as the lovely rose-coloured species P. rosea.

The Royal Cowslip (P. imperialis) resembles P. japonica, but has leaves measuring 18 in. long by 5 in. wide. It grows at an elevation of 9000 ft. in Java, and has deep yellow or orange flowers.

The primrose is to be had in cultivation in a considerable variety of shades of colour, ranging from the palest yellow to deep crimson and blue. As the varieties do not reproduce quite true from seed, it is necessary to increase special kinds by division. The primrose is during the summer. at its best in heavy soils in slight shade, and with plenty of moisture

One of the most popular of winter and early spring decorative plants is the Chinese primrose, Primula sinensis, of which some superb strains have been obtained. For ordinary purposes young plants are raised annually from seeds, sown about the beginning of March, and again for succession in Apri¡ and, if needed, in May. The seed should be sown in well-drained pots or pans, in a compost of three parts light loam, one part well-rotted leaf-mould, and one part clean gritty sand, as it does not germinate freely if the soil contains stagnant moisture, afterwards placing a sheet of glass over the pans to prevent evaporation of moisture. When the seeds germinate, remove the glass and place the pans in a welllighted position near the glass, shading them from the sun with thin white paper, and giving water moderately as required. When the seedlings are large enough to handle, prick them out in pans long, pot them singly in 3-in. pots, using in the soil a little rotten or shallow boxes, and, as soon as they have made leaves an inch dung. They should then be placed in a light frame near the glass in an open situation, facing the north. When their pots are filled with roots they should be moved into 6-in. or 7-in. pots. The soil should now consist of three parts good loam broken with the hand, one part rotten dung and leaf-mould, and as much sand as will keep the whole open. They should be potted firmly, and kept in frames close up to the glass till September, excess in watering being carefully avoided. In the autumn they should be transferred to a light house and placed near the glass, the atmosphere being kept dry by the occasional use of fire-heat. The night temperature should be kept about 45°. When the flowering stems are growing up, manure water once or twice a week will be beneficial. The semi-double varieties are increased from seeds, but the fullydouble ones, and any particular sort, can only be increased by cuttings. Japanese plant, is hardy in sheltered positions in England. P. Primula japonica, a bold-growing and very beautiful cortusoides, var. Sieboldii (Japan), of which there are many lovely forms, is suitable for outdoor culture and under glass. There are several small-growing hardy species which should be accommodated on the best positions on rockeries where they are secure from excessive dampness during winter; excess of moisture at that season is the worst enemy of the choice Alpine varieties. They are propagated by seed and by division of the crowns after flowering, P. Forrest is a quite new orange-yellow flowered species from China; as is also P. Bulleyt. They are probably hardy-at least in favoured spots.

Evening primrose belongs to the genus Oenothera (natural order Onagraceae), natives of temperate North and South America. The common evening primrose, Oe. biennis, has become naturalized in Britain and elsewhere in Europe; the form or species known as var. grandiflora or Oe. Lamarckiana is a very showy plant with larger flowers than in the common form. Other species known in gardens are Oe. missouriensis (macrocarpa), 6 to 12 in., which has stout trailing branches, lance-shaped leaves and large yellow blossoms; Oe. taraxacifolia, 6 to 12 in., which has a stout crown from which the trailing branches spring out, and these bear very large white flowers changing to delicate rose; this perishes in cold sails, and should therefore be raised from seed annually. Of crect habit are Oe. speciosa, 1 to 2 ft., with large white flowers; De. fruticosa, 2 to 3 ft., with abundant yellow flowers.

The name of Cape Primrose has been given by some to the hybrid forms of Streptocarpus, a South African genus belonging to the natural order Gesneraceae.

opposite to its lobes; this anomalous position is generally explained by assuming that an outer whorl of stamens opposite the sepals has disappeared, though sometimes represented by scales as in Samolus and Soldanella. Another explanation is based on the late appearance of the petals in the floral develop'ment and their origin from the backs of the primordia of the stamens; it is then assumed that three alternating whorls only are present, namely, sepals, stamens bearing petal-like dorsal outgrowths, and carpels. The superior ovary-half-inferior in Samolus-bears a simple style ending in a capitate entire stigma, and contains a free-central placenta bearing generally a large number, of ovules, which are exceptional in the group Gamopetalae in having two integuments. The fruit is a capsule dehiscing by 5 sometimes 10 teeth or valves, or sometimes transversely (a pyxidium) as in Anagallis.

Cross pollination is often favoured by dimorphism of the flower, as shown in species of Primula (fig. 3). The two forms have long and short styles repectively, the stamens occupying corresponding positions half-way down or at the mouth of the corolla-tube; the long-styled flowers have smaller pollen-grains, which correspond with smaller stigmatic papillae on the short styles.

The order is divided into five tribes by characters based on differences in position of the ovules-which are generally semianatropous so that the seed is peltate with the hilum in the centre on one side (or ventral), but sometimes, as in Hottonia and

P, Pollen grains, and N, stig matic papillae of long-styled form.

P. n. Ditto of short-styled form. (P, N. p. n.)

Samolus, anatropous with the hilum basal-together with the method of dehiscence of the capsule and the relative position of the ovary. The chief British genera are Primula, including

P. vulgaris, primrose, P. veris, cowslip, P. elatior, oxlip, and the small alpine species P. farinosa, with mealy leaves; Lysimachia, loose strife, including L. Nummularia, money-wort; Anagallis, pimpernel; and Hottonia, water violet.

PRIMULINE, a dye-stuff containing the thiazole ring system conjointly with a benzene ring. The primulines are to be considered as derivatives of dehydrothiotoluitline (aminobenzenyltoluylmercaptan), which is obtained when para-tolui

dine is heated with sulphur for eighteen hours at 180-190° C. and then for a further six hours at 200-220° C. (P. Jacobson, Ber., 1889, 22, p. 333; L. Gattermann, ibid. p. 1084). Dehydrothiotoluidine is not itself a dye-stuff, but if the heating be carried out at a higher temperature in the presence of more sulphur, then a base is formed, which gives primuline-yellow on sulphonation (A. G. Green, Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind., 1888, 1, p. 194). Primuline-yellow is a mixture of sodium salts and probably contains in the molecule at least three thiazole rings

in combination. It is a substantive cotton dye of rather fugitive shade, but can be diazotized on the fibre and then developed with other components, so yielding a series of ingrain colours. Thioflavine T is obtained by the methylation of dehydrothiotoluidine with methyl alcohol in the presence of hydrochloric acid [German Patent 51738 (1888)]. Thioflavine S results from the methylation of dehydrothiotoluidine sulphonic acid. This sulphonic acid on oxidation with bleaching powder or with lead peroxide, in alkaline solution yields chloramine yellow, which dyes cotton a beautiful yellow.

PRIMUS, MARCUS ANTONIUS, Roman general, was born at Tolosa in Gaul about A.D. 30-35. During the reign of Nero he was resident in Rome and a member of the senate, from which he was expelled for forgery in connexion with a will and was banished from the city. He was subsequently reinstated by Galba, and placed in command of the 7th legion in Pannonia. During the civil war he was one of Vespasian's strongest supporters. Advancing into Italy, he gained a decisive victory over the. Vitellians at Bedriacum (or Betriacum) in October 69, and on the same day stormed and set fire to Cremona. He then crossed the Apennines, and made his way to Rome, into which he forced an entrance after considerable opposition. Vitellius was seized and put to death. For a few days Primus was virtually ruler of Rome, and the senate bestowed upon him the rank and insignia of a consul. But on the arrival of Licinius Mucianus he was not only obliged to surrender his authority, but was treated with such ignominy that he left Rome. Primus must have been alive during the reign of Domitian, since four epigrams of Martial are addressed to him. Tacitus describes him as brave in action, ready of speech, clever at bringing others into odium, powerful in times of civil war and rebellion, greedy, extravagant, in peace a bad citizen, in war an ally not to be despised.

See Tacitus, Histories, ii., iii., iv.; Dio Cassius Ixv. 9-21.

PRINA, GIUSEPPE (1768-1814), Italian statesman. He gave early proofs of rare talent, and after studying at the university of Pavia he passed as doctor of law in 1789. He was a firm adherent of Napoleon Bonaparte, and when Eugène Beauharnais became viceroy of Italy, was appointed minister of finance. Genial in private life, he was harsh and unyielding in his official capacity; and his singular skill in devising fresh taxes to meet the enormous demands of Napoleon's government made him the best-hated man in Lombardy, the more so that, being a Piedmontese, he was regarded as a foreigner. The news

of the emperor's forced abdication on the 11th of April 1814 The senate assembled on the 19th and Prina's party moved that reached Milan on the 16th, and roused hopes of independence. delegates should be despatched to Vienna to request that Eugène kingdom. In spite of precautions this fact became public and provoked the formidable riot styled "The battle of the uminto the senate, pillaged its halls and sought everywhere for the brellas" that broke out the next day. A furious mob burst his house, which they wrecked, and seizing the doomed minister, execrated Prina. Not finding him there, the rioters rushed to who was discovered in a remote chamber donning a disguise, during four hours dragged him about the town, until wounded, mutilated, almost torn to pieces, he received his death-blow. The mob then insulted his miserable remains, stuffing stampedpaper into his mouth. These horrors were enacted by day, in a thoroughfare crowded with " respectable" citizens sheltered from the rain by umbrellas. The authorities were passive, and although some courageous persons actually rescued the victim at an early stage and concealed him in a friendly house, the bloodthirsty mob soon discovered his refuge and were about to force an entrance, when the dying man surrendered to save his deliverer's property. The riots directly contributed to the re-establishment of Austrian rule in Milan,

Beauharnais should be raised to the throne of a free Italian

See M. Fabi, Milano ed il ministro Prina (Novara, 1860); F. Lemmi, La Restaurazione austriaca a Milano nel 1814 (Bologna,

branch of the Lubomirskis. But, in general, though the title "prince" implies descent from one or other of the ruling dynasties of Russia, it is in itself of little account, being exceedingly common owing to its being borne by every member of the family. The predicate of "Serene Highness," though borne by certain magnates who were princes before they became Russians-as in the case of the families mentioned above-is not attached to the Russian title of "prince." In some cases, however, it is conferred with the title by imperial warrant (e.g. Lieven, 1826).

of Wales have not been dukes of Cornwall, as kichard II. and George III.

But even now the cadets of the reigning family can only by royal intervention legally be saved from merging, as of old, in the general untitled mass of the people. The children of the sovereign other than his eldest son, though by courtesy "princes" and "princesses, " need a royal warrant to raise them de jure above the common herd; and even then, though they be dubbed " Royal Highness" in their cradles, they remain commoners till raised to the peerage. In 1905 King Edward VII. established what appears to be a new precedent, by conferring the titles of "princess" and "highness" upon the daughters of the princess Louise, duchess of Fife, created "princess royal. "

implied no such subordination. The only other Monaco. instance in Europe of "prince" as a completely sovereign title is that of the prince of Monaco, the formal style having been adopted by the Grimaldi lords in 1641.

"

,,

In Great Britain "prince" and " princess as titles are confined to members of the royal family, though non-royal dukes are so described in their formal style (see DUKE). Great Nor is this use of great antiquity; the custom of Britain. giving the courtesy title of "prince to all male descendants of the sovereign to the third and fourth generation being of modern growth and quite foreign to English traditions. It was not till the reign of Henry VII. that the king's sons began to be styled "princes "; and as late as the time of Charles II., the daughters of the duke of York, both of whom became queens regnant, were called simply the Lady Mary and the Lady Anne. The title of "princess royal," bestowed on the eldest daughter of the sovereign was borrowed by King George II. from Prussia. Until recent years the title "prince" was never conferred on anybody except the heir-apparent to the Crown, and his principality is a peerage. Since the reign of Edward III. the eldest sons of the kings and queens of England have always been dukes of Cornwall by birth, and, with a few exceptions, princes of Wales by creation. Before that Edward I. had conferred the principality on his eldest son, afterwards Edward II., who was summoned to and sat in parliament as prince of Wales. But Edward the Black Prince was the original grantee Prince of of the principality as well as of the dukedom, under the special limitations which have continued in force to the present day. The entail of the former was "to him and his heirs the kings of England" and of the latter "to him and his heirs the first-begotten sons of the kings of England. Hence when a prince of Wales and duke of Cornwall succeeds to the throne the principality in all cases merges at once in the Crown, and can have no separate existence again except under a fresh creation, while the dukedom, if he has a son, descends immediately to him, or remains in abeyance until he has a son if one is not already born. If, however, a prince of Wales and duke of Cornwall should die in the lifetime of the sovereign, leaving a son and heir, both dignities are extinguished, because his son, although he is his heir, is neither a king of England nor the first-begotten son of a king of England. But, if instead of a son he should leave a brother his heir, then-as was decided in the reign of James I. on the death of Henry, prince of Wales, whose heir was his brother Charles, duke of Yorkthe dukedom of Cornwall would pass to him as the first-begotten son of the king of England then alive, the principality of Wales alone becoming merged in the Crown. It has thus occasionally happened that the dukes of Cornwall have not been princes of Wales, as Henry VI. and Edward VI., and that the princes

Wales.

many Englishmen is apt to regard all German princes with a certain contempt, whereas the title is in Germany sometimes associated with sovereign power, sometimes with vast territorial possessions, and always with high social position.

44

See, Du Cange, Glossarium, s.v. Princeps," ed. G. A. L. Henschal (Niort, 1882); John Selden, Tilles of Honour (London, 1672); Almanach de Gotha (1906); H. Schulze, Die Hausgesetze der regierenden deutschen Fürstenhauser (3 vols., Jena, 1862-1883); H, Rehm, Modernes Fürstenrecht (Munich, 1904). (W. A. P.)

PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND, a province of the Dominion of Canada, lies between 45° 58′ and 47° 7′ N. and 62° and 64° 27′ W. The underlying geological formation is Permian, though outliers of Triassic rock occur. The coal seams supposed to underlie the Permian formation are apparently too deep down to be of practical value. The rocks consist of soft red micaceous sandstone and shales, with interstratified but irregular beds of brownish-red conglomerates containing pebbles of white quartz and other rocks. There are also beds of hard dark-red sandstone with the shales. Bands of moderately hard reddish-brown conglomerate, the pebbles being of red shale and containing white calcite, are seen at many points; and then greenish-grey irregular patches occur in the red beds, due to the bleaching out of the red colours by the action of the organic matter of plants. Fossil plants are abundant at many places. Beds of peat, dunes of drifted sana, alluvial clays and mussel mud occur in and near the creeks and bays.

Physical Features.-The island lies in a great semi-circular bay of the Gulf of St Lawrence, which extends from Point Miscou in New Brunswick to Cape North in Cape Breton. From the mainland it is separated by Northumberland Strait, which varies from 9 to 30 miles in width. It is extremely irregular in shape, and deep inlets and tidal streams almost divide it into three approximately equal parts; from the head of Hillsborough river on the south to Savage Harbour on the north is only one and a half miles, while at high tide the distance between the heads of the streams which fall into Bedeque and Richmond Bays is even less. North of Summerside the land nowhere rises more than 175 ft. above sea-level; but between Summerside and Charlottetown, especially near north Wiltshire, is a ridge of hills, running from north to south and rising to a height of nearly 500 ft. From Charlottetown eastwards the land is low and level. The north shore, facing the gulf, is a long series of beaches of fine sand, and is a favourite resort in summer. On the south, low cliffs of crumbling red sandstone face the strait. The climate is healthy, and though bracing, milder than that of the neighbouring mainland. Fogs are much less common than in either New Brunswick or Nova Scotia.

Area and Population.-The greatest length of the island is 145 m., its greatest breadth 34 m., its total area 2184 sq. m.