1854 he led his burghers against a chief named Makapan, who had murdered a party of twenty-three Boers, including ten women and children. The natives were blockaded in a great cave in the Zoutpansberg and about 3000 were starved to death or shot as they attempted to escape. Having thus chastised Makapan's clan, Pretorius turned his energies to the creation of a strong central government, and from 1856 onward his dominating idea appears to have been the formation of one Boer state to include the Orange River burghers. In December 1856 representatives of the districts of Potchefstroom, Rustenburg and Pretoria met and drew up a constitution and on the 6th of January the "South African Republic" was formally constituted Pretorius having been elected president on the previous day. Though the Boers of the Lydenburg, Utrecht and Zoutpansberg districts refused to acknowledge the new republic, Pretorius, with the active co-operation of Commandant Paul Kruger (afterwards President Kruger), endeavoured (1857) to bring about the union of the Orange Free State and the Transvaal, and a commando crossed the Vaal to support Pretorius. The attempt at coercion failed, but in December 1859 the partisans of Pretorius in the Free State secured his election as president of that republic. Pretorius had just effected a reconciliation of the Lydenburg Boers with those of the other districts of the Transvaal, and hoping to complete his work of unification he accepted the presidency of the Free State, assuming office at Bloemfon tein in February 1860. But the condition of anarchy into which the Transvaal fell shortly afterwards effectually weaned the Free State burghers from any thought of immediate amal

Trek, and by way of what is now the Orange Free State crossed | Andries, was appointed in August 1853 to succeed his father as the Drakensberg into Natal, where he arrived in November commandant-general of Potchefstroom and Rustenburg, two 1838, at a time when the emigrants there were without a re- of the districts into which the Transvaal was then divided. In cognized leader. Pretorius was at once chosen commandantgeneral and speedily collected a force to avenge the massacre of Piet Retief and his party, who had been treacherously killed by the Zulu king Dingaan the previous February. Pretorius's force was attacked on the 16th of December (" Dingaan's Day ") by over 10,000 Zulus, who were beaten off with a loss of 3000 men. In January 1840 Pretorius with a commando of 400 burghers helped Mpande in his revolt against his brother Dingaan and was the leader of the Natal Boers in their opposition to the British. In 1842 he besieged the small British garrison at Durban, but retreated to Maritzburg on the arrival of reinforcements under Colonel (subsequently Sir) Josias Cloete and afterwards exerted his influence with the Boers in favour of coming to terms with the British. He remained in Natal as a British subject, and in 1847 was chosen by the Dutch farmers there to lay before the governor of Cape Colony the grievances under which they laboured owing to the constant immigration of natives, to whom locations were assigned to the detriment of Boer claims. Pretorius went to Grahams Town, where Sir Henry Pottinger (the governor) then was; but Sir Henry refused to see him or receive any communication from him. Pretorius returned to Natal determined to abandon his farm and once more trek beyond the British dominions. With a considerable following he was preparing to cross the Drakensberg | when Sir Harry Smith, newly appointed governor of the Cape, reached the emigrants' camp on the Tugela (Jan. 1848). Sir Harry promised the farmers protection from the natives and persuaded many of the party to remain, but Pretorius departed, and on the proclamation of British sovereignty up to the Vaalgamation with their northern neighbours. Pretorius however fixed his residence in the Magalisberg, north of that river. He continued to intervene in the affairs of the Transvaal and at was chosen by the burghers living on both banks of the Vaal length (April 15, 1863) resigned his Free State presidency. as their commandant-general. At the request of the Boers at Acting as mediator between the various Transvaal parties PreWinburg Pretorius crossed the Vaal in July and led the anti- torius in January 1864 succeeded in putting an end to the civil British party in their "war of freedom," occupying Bloem-strife and in May following once more became president of the fontein on the 20th of the same month. In August he was defeated at Boomplaats by Sir Harry Smith and thereupon retreated north of the Vaal, where he became leader of one of the largest of the parties into which the trans-Vaal Boers were divided, and commandant-general of Potchefstroom and Rustenburg, his principal rival being Commandant-General A. H. Potgieter. In 1851 he was asked by the Boer malcontents in the Orange River Sovereignty and by the Basuto chief Moshesh to come to their aid, and he announced his intention of crossing the Vaal to "restore order" in the Sovereignty. His object, however, was rather to obtain from the British an acknowledgment of the independence of the Transvaal Boers. The British cabinet having decided on a policy of abandonment, the proposal of Pretorius was entertained. A reward of £2000 which had been offered for his apprehension after the Boomplaats fight, was withdrawn, Pretorius met the British commissioners at a farm near the Sand River, and with them concluded the convention (Jan. 17, 1852) by which the independence of the Transvaal Boers was recognized by Great Britain. Pretorius recrossed the Vaal and at Rustenburg on the 16th of March was reconciled to Potgieter, the followers of both leaders approving the convention, though the Potgieter party was not represented at the Sand River. In the same year Pretorius paid a visit to Durban with the object of opening up trade between Natal and the new republic. He also in 1852 attempted to close the road to the interior through Bechuanaland and sent a commando to the western border against Sechele. During this expedition David Livingstone's house at Kolobeng was looted. Pretorius died at his home at Magalisberg on the 23rd of July 1853. He is described by Theal as "the ablest leader and most perfect representative of the Emigrant Farmers." In 1855 a new district and a new town were formed out of the Potchefstroom and Rustenburg districts and named Pretoria in honour of the late commandant-general.

South African Republic-now for the first time a united community. Conciliation was a marked feature of his character and to Pretorius more than any other man was due the welding of the Transvaal Boers into one nation. Pretorius shared the ideas of his father and the Emigrant Farmers generally concerning the title of the state to indefinite expansion north, cast and west. Although he had much difficulty in maintaining the authority of the republic over the natives within its recognized borders, yet in April 1868, on the report of gold discoveries at Tati, he issued a proclamation annexing to the Transvaal on the west the whole of Bechuanaland and on the east territory up to and including part of Delagoa Bay. As to Delagoa Bay Portugal at once protested and in 1869 its right to the bay was acknowledged by Pretorius, who in the same year was re-elected president. The right of the Boers to the whole of Bechuanaland was not pressed by Pretorius in the face of British op position, but in 1870, when the discovery of diamonds along the lower Vaal had led to the establishment of many diggers' camps, an attempt was made to enforce the claims of the Transvaal to that district. Pretorius aroused the hostility of the diggers by granting an exclusive concession to one firm. Realizing his mistake, the concession was cancelled and in September 1870 he issued a proclamation notable as offering to the diggers very large powers of self-government. Pretorius went to the western frontier and in repeated conferences with the Bechuana chiefs attempted to get them to acknowledge the Boer contention and by joining the Transvaal to "save" their territory from the British. His diplomacy failed, and finally, without consulting his colleagues, he agreed to refer the question of the boundary to the arbitration of Mr R. W. Keate, then lieutenant-governor of Natal. The award, given on the 17th of October 1871, was against the Boer claims. Pretorius loyally accepted the decision, but it aroused a storm of indignation in the Transvaal. The Volksraad refused to ratify the award and Pretorius 2. MARTHINIUS PRETORIUS (1819-1901), the eldest son of resigned the presidency (November 1871).

311

From this time Pretorius took little further part in public | the order in Paris, pursuing his studies at the same time at the affairs until after the first annexation of the state by Great Britain. In 1878 he acted as chairman of the committee of Boer leaders who were seeking the restoration of the independence of their country, and for his action in that capacity he was arrested in January 1880 by order of Sir Garnet Wolseley on a charge of treason. (See the BLUE BOOK [C. 2584] of 1880 for details of this charge.) He was admitted to bail and shortly afterwards urged by Wolseley to accept a seat on the executive council. This offer Pretorius declined, but he consented to tour the country with a proclamation by Wolseley counselling the Boers to submit, and promising them self-government. In December of the same year he was appointed, with Paul Kruger and P. Joubert, to carry on the government on the part of the insurgent Boers. He was one of the signatories to the Pretoria Convention and continued to act as a member of the Triumvirate until the election of Kruger as president in May 1883. He then withdrew from public life; but lived to see the country re-annexed to Great Britain, dying at Potchefstroom on the 19th of May 1901. He is stated to have disapproved the later developments of Krugerism, and within four months of his death visited Louis Botha and Schalk Burger, on behalf of Lord Kitchener, with the object of bringing the war to an end.

For the elder Pretorius see G. M. Theal, Compendium of the History and Geography of South Africa, 3rd ed. (London, 1878), and History of South Africa, vol. iv. [1834-1854) (London, 1893). For the younger Pretorius see vol. v. of the same series.

PRETTY, a word usually applied in the sense of pleasing in appearance, without connoting those qualities which are described as beautiful or handsome. In Old English praettig meant tricky, cunning or wily, and is thus used to translate the Latin sagax, astutus, callidus, in a vocabulary of about 1000. Practt meant a trick, and this word is seen in many forms in Dutch, cf. the words prellig, sportive, part, trick. A connexion has been suggested with the Greek #pakтikós, πράTTEW, to do, make, through Latin practica, practice, performance; but the New English Dictionary rejects these, as also Celtic sources, as unfounded. From cunning "" to skilful, and thence to its use as a term of general appreciation as is so often used by Pepys, the development is easy.

PREVARICATION, a divergence from the truth, equivocation, quibbling, a want of plain-dealing or straightforwardness, especially a deliberate misrepresentation by evasive answers, often used as a less offensive synonym for a lie. The Latin praevaricatio was specifically applied to the conduct in an action at law in which an advocate (praevaricator) in collusion with his opponent put up a bad case of defence. Praevaricare meant literally to walk with the legs very wide apart, to straddle, hence to walk crookedly, to stray from the direct road, varicus, straddling, being derived from varus, bow-legged, a word which has been connected etymologically with German quer, transverse, across, and English "queer."

PREVEZA, or PREVESA, a seaport of Albania, European Turkey, in the vilayet of Iannina; at the entrance to the Gulf of Arta, an inlet of the Ionian Sea. Pop. (1905), 6500, of whom about four-fifths are Christian Albanians or Greeks, and onefifth Moslems. The town is surrounded by dense olive groves, and most of its houses stand in their own gardens. The harbour is small, and closed to large vessels by a bar of sand; but it is a port of call for the Austrian Lloyd steamers, and annually accommodates about 1500 small vessels, the majority of which are engaged in the coasting trade. Preveza exports dairy produce, valonia, hides and wool, olives and olive oil. The yearly value of its trade varies from about £70,000 to £80,000. About 3 m. north are the ruins of Nicopolis (q.v.).

PRÉVOST, ANTOINE FRANÇOIS (1697-1763), French author and novelist, was born at Hesdin, Artois, on the 1st of April 1697. He first appears with the full name of Prévost d'Exiles in a letter to the booksellers of Amsterdam in 1731. His father, Liévin Prévost, was a lawyer, and several members of the family had embraced the ecclesiastical estate. Prévost was educated at the Jesuit school of Hesdin, and in 1713 became a novice of

college of La Flèche. At the end of 1716 he left the Jesuits to join the army, but he soon tired of life in barracks, and returned to Paris in 1719 with the idea, apparently, of resuming his novitiate. He is said to have travelled in Holland about this time; in any case he returned to the army, this time with a commission. Some of his biographers have assumed that he suffered some of the misfortunes assigned to his hero Des Grieux. However that may be, he joined in 1719-1720 the learned community of the Benedictines of St Maur, with whom he found refuge, he himself says, after the unlucky termination of a love affair. He took the vows at Jumièges in 1721 after a year's novitiate, and received in 1726 priest's orders at St Germer de Flaix. He resided for seven years in various houses of the order, teaching, preaching and studying. In 1728 he was at the abbey of St Germain-des-Prés, Paris, where he was engaged on the Gallia christiana, the learned work undertaken by the monks in continuation of the works of Denys de Sainte-Marthe, who had been a member of their order. His restless spirit made him seek from the Pope a transfer to the easier rule of Cluny; but without waiting for the brief, he left the abbey without leave (1728), and, learning that his superiors had obtained a lettre de cachet against him, fled to England.

and literature, traceable throughout his writings. Before leaving In London he acquired considerable knowledge of English history the Benedictines Prévost had begun his most famous romance, and two years later at Amsterdam. In 1729 he left England for Mémoires et avantures d'un homme de qualité qui s'est retiré du monde, the first four volumes of which were published in Paris in 1728, Philosophe anglois, ou Histoire de Monsieur Cleveland, fils naturel Holland, where he began to publish (Utrecht, 1730) a romance, de Cromwell, écrite par lui-mesme, et traduite de l'anglois (Paris the material of which, at least, had been gathered in London-Le and partly Utrecht). A spurious fifth volume (Utrecht, 1734) 1731-1739, 8 vols., but most of the existing sets are partly Paris the Hague, he engaged on a translation of the Historia of De Thou, contained attacks on the Jesuits, and an English translation of and, relying on the popularity of his first book, published at Amster the whole appeared in 1734. Meanwhile, during his residence at dam a Suite in three volumes, forming volumes v., vi., and vii. of published in Paris in 1731 as Les Aventures du chevalier des Grieux the original Mémoires et avantures d'un homme de qualité. The seventh volume contained the famous Manon Lescaut, separately read, chiefly in pirated copies, as it was forbidden in France. In et de Manon Lescaut, par Monsieur D....The book was eagerly 1733 he left the Hague for London in company with a lady whose Spectator, Le Pour et contre, which he continued to produce, with character, as given by Prévost's enemies, was far from desirable. In London he edited a weekly gazette on the model of Addison's short intervals, until 1740.

In

dictines, and, returning to France, was received in the BeneIn the autumn of 1734 Prévost was reconciled with the Benedictine monastery of La Croix-Saint-Leufroy in the diocese of Evreux to pass through a new, though brief, novitiate. becoming almoner to the prince de Conti, and in 1754 obtained 1735 he was dispensed from residence in a monastery by duce novels and translations from the English, and, with the the priory of St Georges de Gesnes. He continued to proexception of a brief exile (1741-1742) spent in Brussels and Frankfort, he resided for the most part at Chantilly until his death, which took place suddenly while he was walking in the neighbouring woods on the 23rd of December 1763. Hideous particulars have been added, but the cause of his death, the rupture of an aneurism, has been definitely established. Stories of crime and disaster were related of Prévost by his enemies, and diligently repeated, but they have proved to be as apocryphal as the details given of his death.

short; it is entirely free from improbable incident, it is penetrated Manon Lescaut, one of the greatest novels of the century, is very every one of its characters is a triumph of that analytic portraiture by the truest and most cunningly managed feeling; and almost the hero, is probably the most perfect example of the carrying which is the secret of the modern novel. The chevalier des Grieux, out of the sentiment" All for love and the world well lost" that exists in fiction, at least where the circumstances are those of ordinary and probable life. Tiberge, his friend, is hardly inferior in the brother, has vigorous touches as a bully and Bohemian; but the triumph of the book is Manon herself. Animated by a real affection part of mentor and reasonable man. Lescaut, the heroine's

difficult

for her lover, and false to him only because her love of splendour,
comfort and luxury prevents her from welcoming privation with
him or for him, though in effect she prefers him to all others, perfectly
natural and even amiable in her degradation, and yet showing the
moral of that degradation most vividly, Manon is one of the most
remarkable heroines in all fiction. She had no literary ancestress;
she seems to have sprung entirely from the imagination, or perhaps
the sympathetic observation, of the wandering scholar who drew
her. Only the Princesse de Clèves can challenge comparison with
her before or near to her own date, and in Manon Lescaut the
plot is much more complete and interesting, the sentiments less
artificial, and the whole story nearer to actual life than in
Madame de la Fayette's masterpiece. Prevost's other works
include: Le Doyen de Killérine, histoire morale, composée sur les
mémoires d'une illustre famille d'Ireland (Paris, 1735; 2nd part,
the Hague, 1739, 3rd, 4th and 5th parts, 1740); Tout pour l'amour
(1735), a translation of Dryden's tragedy; Histoire d'une Grecque
moderne (Amsterdam [Paris] 2 vols., 1740): Histoire de Marguerite
d'Anjou (Amsterdam [Paris] 2 vols., 1740); Mémoires pour servir a
l'histoire de Malte (Amsterdam, 1741); Campagnes philosophiques,
ou mémoires ... contenant l'histoire de la guerre d'Irelande
(Amsterdam, 1741); Histoire de Guillaume le Conquérant (Paris,
1742); Histoire générale des voyages (15 vols., Paris, 1746-1759),
continued by other writers; translations from Samuel Richardson,
Pamela (4 vols., 1742), Lettres anglaises ou Histoire de Miss Clarisse
Harlowe (6 vols., London, 1741); Nouvelles lettres anglaises, ou Histoire
du chevalier Grandisson (Amsterdam, 3 vols., 1755); Mémoires pour
servir a l'histoire de la vertu (Cologne, 4 vols., 1762), from Mrs
Sheridan's Mémoires of Miss Sidney Bidulph; Histoire de la maison
de Stuart (3 vols., 1740) from Hune's History of England to 1688;
Le Monde morale, ou Mémoires pour servir a l'histoire du cœur
humain (2 vols., Geneva, 1760), &c.
For the bibliography of Prevost's works, which presents many
complications, and for documentary evidence of the facts of his
life see H. Harrisse, L'Abbé Prevost (1896); also a thesis (1898) by
V. Schroeder.

PRÉVOST, CONSTANT (1787-1856), French geologist, was born in Paris on the 4th of June 1787, and was son of Louis Prévost, receiver of the rentes of that city. He was educated at the Central Schools, where, inspired by the lectures of G. Cuvier, Alexandre Brongniart and A. Duméril, he determined to devote himself to natural science. He took his degree in Letters and Sciences in 1811, and for a time pursued the study of medicine and anatomy. Mainly through the influence of Brongniart he turned his attention to geology, and during the years 1816-1819 made a special study of the Vienna Basin where he pointed out for the first time the presence of. Tertiary strata like those of the Paris Basin, but including a series of later date. His next work (1821) was an essay on the geology of parts of Normandy, with special reference to the Secondary strata, which he compared with those of England. From 18211829 he was professor of geology at the Athenaeum at Paris, and he took a leading part with Ami Boué, G. P. Deshayes and

Jules Desnoyers in the founding of the Geological Society of

France (1830). In 1831 he became assistant professor and afterwards honorary professor of geology to the faculty of sciences. Having studied the volcanoes of Italy and Auvergne, he opposed the views of von Buch regarding craters of elevation, maintaining that the cones were due to the material successively errupted. Like Lyell he advocated a study of the causes or forces now in action in order to illustrate the past. One of his more important memoirs was De la Chronologie des terrains et du synchronisme des formations (1845). He died in Paris on the 17th of August 1856.

Memoir with portrait, by J. Gosselet, Ann. soc. géol. du nord, tome xxv. 1896.

PRÉVOST, EUGÈNE MARCEL (1862- ), French novelist, was born in Paris on the 1st of May 1862. He was educated at Jesuit schools in Bordeaux and Paris, entering the Ecole Polytechnique in 1882. He published a story in the Clairon as early as 1881, but for some years after the completion of his studies he applied his technical knowledge to the manufacture of tobacco. He published in succession, Le Scorpion (1887), Chonchette (1888), Mademoiselle Jauffre (1889), Cousine Laura (1890), La Confession d'un amant (1891), Lettres de femmes (1992), L'Automne d'une femme (1893), and in 1894 he made a great sensation by an exaggerated and revolting study of the results of Parisian education and Parisian society on young

girls, Les Demi-vierges, which was dramatized and produced
with great success at the Gymnase on the 21st of May 1895-
Le Jardin secret appeared in 1897; and in 1900 Les Vierges
fortes, and a study of the question of women's education and
independence in two novels Frédérique and Lea. L'Heureux
ménage (1901), Les Lettres à Françoise (1902), La Princesse
d'Erminge (1904), and L'Accordeur aveugle (1905) are among his
later novels. An amusing picture of modern German manners
is given in his Monsieur et Madame Moloch (1906). He had a
great success in 1904 with a four act play La Plus faible, produced
at the Comédie Française. In 1909 he was elected to the
Academy.
PRÉVOST, PIERRE (1751-1839), Swiss philosopher and
physicist, son of a Protestant clergyman in Geneva, was born
in that city on the 3rd of March 1751, and was educated for a
clerical career. But he forsook it for law, and this too he quickly
deserted to devote himself to education and to travelling. He
became intimate with J. J. Rousseau, and, a little later, with
Dugald Stewart, having previously distinguished himself as a
translator of and commentator on Euripides. Frederick II.
of Prussia secured him in 1780 as professor of philosophy, and
made him member of the Akadémie der Wissenschaften in Ber-
lin. He there became acquainted with Lagrange, and was thus
led to turn his attention to physical science. After some years
spent on political economy and on the principles of the fine
arts (in connexion with which he wrote, for the Berlin Memoirs,
a remarkable dissertation on poetry) he returned to Geneva and
began his work on magnetism and on heat. Interrupted
occasionally in his studies by political duties, in which he was
often called to the front, he remained professor of philosophy
at Geneva till he was called in 1810 to the chair of physics.
He died at Geneva on the 8th of April 1839.

Prévost published much on philology, philosophy, and political economy; but he will be remembered mainly for having published, with additions of his own, the Traité de physique of G. L. Le Sage, and for his enunciation of the law of exchange in radiation. His (1788), Recherches physico-mécaniques sur la chaleur (1792), and scientific publications included De l'Origine des forces magnétiques Essai sur le calorique rayonnant (1809).

PRÉVOST-PARADOL, LUCIEN ANATOLE (1829-1870), French man of letters, was born in Paris on the 8th of August 1829. He was educated at the College Bourbon and entered the Ecole Normale. In 1855 he was appointed professor of French literature at Aix. He held the post, however, barely a year, resigning it to become a leader-writer on the Journal des débats. He also wrote in the Courrier du dimanche, and for a very short time in the Presse. His chief works are Essais de politique et de lillérature (three series, 1859-1866), and Essais sur les moralistes français (1864). He was, however, rather a journalist than a writer of books, and was one of the chief opponents of the empire on the side of moderate liberalism. He underwent the usual difficulties of a journalist under that régime, and was once imprisoned. In 1865 he was elected an Academician. The accession of Emile Ollivier to power was fatal to Prévost-Paradol, who apparently believed in the possibility of a liberal empire, and consequently accepted the appointment of envoy to the United States. This was the signal for the most unmeasured attacks on him from the republican party. He had scarcely installed himself in his post before the outbreak of war between France and Prussia occurred. He shot himself at Washington on the 11th of July 1870, and died on the 20th.

PREY (O. Fr. preie, mod. proie, Lat. praeda, booty, from prae and the root hed-seen in prehendere, prendere, to grasp), booty, spoil, plunder taken in war, by robbery, or other violent means; particularly the quarry, the animal killed for food by a carnivorous animal; a beast or bird of prey. A particular usage for that which is saved from any trial of strength or battle is familiar from the Bible (Jer. xxi. 9) “his life shall be unto him for a prey."

PRIAM (Gr. IIpiapos), in Greek legend, the last king of Troy, son of Laomedon and brother of Tithonus. Little is known of him before the Trojan War, which broke out when he was ad vanced in years. According to Homer (Iliad, iii. 184) in his

youth he fought on the side of the Phrygians against the Ama- | fulness of nature. Sailors invoked him in distress and fishermen zons. He had fifty sons and fifty daughters, and possessed im- prayed to him for success. He gradually came to be regarded mense wealth. He appears only twice on the scene of action as the god of sensuality. His symbol was the phallus, an emduring the war-to make arrangements for the duel between blem of productivity and a protection against the evil eye. The Paris and Menelaus, and to beg the body of Hector for burial first fruits of the gardens and fields, goats, milk and honey, from Achilles, whom he visits in his tent by night. He was said to and occasionally asses, were offered to him. He was sometimes have been slain by Neoptolemus, son of Achilles, during the sack represented as an old man, with a long beard and large genitals, of Troy (Virgil, Aeneid, ii. 512). See under TROY, on the legends. wearing a long Oriental robe, and a turban or garland of vinePRIAPEIA, a collection of poems (about eighty in number) leaves, with fruit and bunches of grapes in his lap. Amongst in various metres on the subject of Priapus. It was compiled the Romans, rough wooden images, after the manner of the from literary works and inscriptions on images of the god by hermae, with phallus stained with vermilion, were set up in an unknown editor, who composed the introductory epigram. gardens. His image was placed on tombs, as symbolizing the From their style and versification it is evident that the poems doctrine of regeneration and a future life, and his name occurs belong to the best period of Latin literature. Some, however, on sepulchral inscriptions. In his hand he carried a bill-hook or may be interpolations of a later period. They will be found in club, while a reed on his head, shaking backwards and forwards F. Bücheler's Petronius (1904), L. Müller's Catullus (1870), and in the wind, acted as a scarecrow. E. Bährens, Poetae latini minores, i. (1879).

Price then turned his attention to the question of the American colonies. He had from the first been strongly opposed to the war, and in 1776 he published a pamphlet entitled Observations on Civil Liberty and the Justice and Policy of the War with America. Several thousand copies of this work were sold within a few days; a cheap edition was soon issued; the pamphlet was extolled by one set of politicians and abused by another; amongst its critics were Dr Markham, archbishop of York, John Wesley, and Edmund Burke; and Price rapidly became one of the bestknown men in England. He was presented with the freedom of the city of London, and it is said that his pamphlet had no inconsiderable share in determining the Americans to declare their independence. A second pamphlet on the war with America, the debts of Great Britain, and kindred topics followed in the spring of 1777. His name thus became identified with the cause of American independence. He was the intimate friend of Franklin; he corresponded with Turgot; and in the winter of 1778 he was invited by Congress to go to America and assist in the financial administration of the states. This offer he refused from unwillingness to quit his own country and his family connexions. In 1781 he received the degree of D.D. from Yale College.

in 1818. He was educated at Pembroke College, Oxford, of which college (after taking a first class in mathematics in 1840 and gaining the university mathematical scholarship in 1842) he became fellow in 1844 and tutor and mathematical lecturer in 1845. He at once took a leading position in the mathematical teaching of the university, and published treatises on the Differential calculus (in 1848) and the Infinitesimal calculus (4 vols., 1852-1860), which for long were the recognized textbooks there. This latter work included the differential and integral calculus, the calculus of variations, the theory of attractions, and analytical mechanics. In 1853 he was appointed Sedleian professor of natural philosophy, resigning it in June 1898. His chief public activity at Oxford was in connexion with the hebdomadal council, and with the Clarendon Press, of which he was for many years secretary. He was also a curator of the Bodleian Library, an honorary fellow of Queen's College, a governor of Winchester College and a visitor of Greenwich Observatory. In 1891 he was elected Master of Pembroke College, which dignity carried with it a canonry of Gloucester Cathedral. He died on the 29th of December 1898. See Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society (1899). PRICE, BONAMY (1807-1888), English political economist, was born at St Peter Port, Guernsey, on the 22nd of May 1807. He entered at Worcester College, Oxford, in 1825, where he took a double first in 1829. From 1830 to 1850 he was an assistant master at Rugby school. He then lived for some years in London, being engaged in business and literary work, and was appointed to serve on various royal commissions. He married in 1864. In 1868 he was elected Drummond professor of politi-immateriality of the human soul. Both Price and Priestley were cal economy at Oxford, and was thrice re-elected to the post, which he held till his death. In 1883 he was elected an honorary fellow of his college. In addition to his professorial work, he was in much request as a popular lecturer on political economy. He died in London on the 8th of January 1888. His principal publications, exclusive of pamphlets, were: The Principles of Currency (1869), Currency and Banking (1876), Chapters on Practical Political Economy (1878).

PRICE, RICHARD (1723–1791), English moral and political philosopher, son of a dissenting minister, was born on the 23rd of February 1723, at Tynton, Glamorganshire. He was educated privately and at a dissenting academy in London, and became chaplain and companion to a Mr Streatfield at Stoke Newington. By the death of Mr Streatfield and of an uncle in 1756 his circumstances were considerably improved, and in 1757 he married a Miss Sarah Blundell, originally of Belgrave in Leicestershire. In 1767 he published a volume of sermons, which gained him the acquaintance of Lord Shelburne, an event which had much influence in raising his reputation and determining the character of his subsequent pursuits. It was, however, as a writer on financial and political questions that Price became widely known. In 1769, in a letter to Dr Franklin, he wrote some observations on the expectation of lives, the increase of mankind, and the population of London, which were published in the Philosophical Transactions of that year; in May 1770 he communicated to the Royal Society a paper on the proper method of calculating the values of contingent reversions. The publication of these papers is said to have exercised a beneficial influence in drawing attention to the inadequate calculations on which many insurance and benefit societies had recently been formed. In 1769 Price received the degree of D.D. from the university of Glasgow. In 1771 he published his Appeal to the Public on the Subject of the National Debt (ed. 1772 and 1774). This pamphlet excited considerable controversy, and is supposed to have influenced Pitt in re-establishing the sinking fund for the extinction of the national debt, which had been created by Walpole in 1716 and abolished in 1733. The means, however, which Price proposed for the extinction of the debt are described by Lord Overstone as "a sort of hocus-pocus machinery," supposed to work "without loss to any one," and consequently unsound.

Lord Overstone reprinted in 1857, for private circulation, Price's and other rare tracts on the national debt and the sinking fund.

One of Price's most intimate friends was Dr Priestley, in spite of the fact that they took the most opposite views on morals and metaphysics. In 1778 appeared a published correspondence between these two liberal theologians on the subjects of materialism and necessity, wherein Price maintains, in opposition to Priestley, the free agency of man and the unity and

what would now vaguely be called "Unitarians," though they occupied respectively the extreme right and the extreme left position of that school. Indeed, Price's opinions would seem to have been rather Arian than Socinian.

The pamphlets on the American War made Price famous. He preached to crowded congregations, and, when Lord Shelburne acceded to power, not only was he offered the post of private secretary to the premier, but it is said that one of the paragraphs in the king's speech was suggested by him and even inserted in his words. In 1786 Mrs Price died. There were no children by the marriage, his own health was failing, and the remainder of his life appears to have been clouded by solitude and dejection. The progress of the French Revolution alone cheered him. On the 19th of April 1791 he died, worn out with suffering and disease.

It

Ethical

The philosophical importance of Price is entirely in the region of ethics. The Review of the Principal Questions in Morals (1757. 3rd ed. revised 1787) contains his whole theory. is divided into ten chapters, the first of which, though Theory. a small part of the whole, completes his demonstration of ethical theory. The remaining chapters investigate details of minor importance, and are especially interesting as showing his relation to Butler and Kant (ch. iii. and ch. vii.). The work is professedly a refutation of Hutcheson, but is rather constructive than polemical. The theory he propounds is closely allied to that of Cudworth, but is interesting mainly in comparison with the subsequent theories of Kant.

1. Right and wrong belong to actions in themselves. By this he means, not that the ethical value of actions is independent of their motive and end (see ch. vi), but rather that it is unaffected by consequences, and that it is more or less invariable for intelligent beings. II. This ethical value is perceived by reason or undertively recognizes fitness or congruity between actions, agents and standing (which, unlike Kant, he does not distinguish), which intuitotal circumstances. Arguing that ethical judgment is an act of discrimination, he endeavours to invalidate the doctrine of the moral sense (see SHAFTESBURY and HUTCHESON). Yet, in denying the importance of the emotions in moral judgment, he is driven back to the admission that right actions must be grateful" to us; that, in fact, moral approbation includes both an act of the understanding and an emotion of the heart. Still it remains true that reason alone, in its highest development, would be a sufficient guide. In this conclusion he is in close agreement with Kant; reason is the arbiter, and right is (1) not a matter of the emotions and (2) not relative to imperfect human nature. Price's main point of differ ence with Cudworth is that while Cudworth regards the moral criterion as a vonua or modification of the mind, existing in germ and developed by circumstances, Price regards it as acquired from the contemplation of actions, but acquired necessarily, immediately, intuitively. In his view of disinterested action (ch. iii.) he adds