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cortes met, on the 29th of September, the opposition accused King Carlos of complicity in grave financial scandals. It was admitted that he had borrowed largely from the treasury, on the security of his civil list, and the Republican deputies accused him of endeavouring to assign the tobacco monopoly to one of his own foreign creditors, in settlement of the debt. Franco organized a coalition in defence of the Crown, but in January 1907 business in the cortes was brought to a standstill and many sittings ended in uproar. The attacks on the king were repeated at the trial of the poet Guerra Junqueiro, who was indicted for lèse-majesté. All parties believed that the ministry would fall, and the rotativos prepared once more to divide the spoils of office, when, on the 2nd of May 1907, João Franco reconstructed his cabinet, secured the dissolution of the cortes and announced that certain bills still under discussion would receive the force of law. His partisans in the press hailed the advent of a second Pombal,. and their enthusiasm was shared by many enlightened Portuguese, who had previously held aloof from politics but now rallied to the support of an honest dictator. Backed by these forces, as well as by the king and the army, Franco effected some useful reforms. But his opponents included not only the Republicans, the professional politicians and those officials who feared inquiry, but also the magistracy, the district and municipal councils, and the large body of citizens who still believed in parliamentary government. The existing debt owed by D. Carlos to the nation was assessed at £154,000. This sum was ostensibly paid by the transference to the treasury of the royal yacht " Amelia " and certain palaces; but the cost and upkeep of the "Amelia " had been paid with public money, while the palaces had long been maintained as state property. These transactions, though perhaps necessary to save the credit of the sovereign at the least possible cost, infuriated the opposition. Newspapers and politicians openly advocated rebellion; Franco had recourse to coercion. Seditious journals were suppressed; gaols and fortresses were crowded with prisoners; the upper house, which was hostile to the dictator, was deprived of its judicial powers and reconstituted on a less democratic basis (as in 1826); the district and municipal councils were dissolved and replaced by administrative commissions nominated by the Crown (Jan. 1, 1908).

The ministerial press from time to time announced the discovery of sensational plots against the king and the dictator. It is, however, uncertain whether the assassination Assassination of King of King Carlos and the crown prince (see CARLOS I.), Carlos. on the 1st of February 1908, was part of a widely Accession organized conspiracy; or whether it was the act of of Manoel. an isolated band of fanatics, unconnected with any political party. The republican press applauded the murder; the professional politicians benefited by it. But the regicide Buiça and his associates probably acted on their own initiative. The immediate results were the accession of Prince Manoel or Manuel (Emanuel II.) to the throne and the resignation of Franco, who sailed for Genoa. A coalition ministry, representing all the monarchist parties, was formed under the presidency of Admiral Ferreira do Amaral. The administrative commissions appointed by Franco were dissolved; the civil list was reduced; the upper house was reconstituted. A general election took place; in April the cortes met and the balance of power between Progressives and Regenerators was restored. On the 6th of May 1908 D. Manoel swore to uphold the constitution and was acclaimed king by the cortes. His uncle D. Affonso (b: 1865) took a similar oath as crown prince on the 22nd of March 1910. The failure of the dictatorship and the inability of the monarchists to agree upon any common policy had discredited The Revo- the existing régime, and at the general election of lution of August 1910 the Republican candidates in Lisbon 1910. and Oporto were returned by large majorities. On the 3rd of October the murder of a distinguished Republican physician, Dr Miguel Bombarda, precipitated the revolution which had been organized to take place in Lisbon ten days later. The Republican soldiers in Lisbon, aided by armed civilians and by the warships in the Tagus, attacked the loyal

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garrison and municipal guards, shelled the Necessidades Palace, and after severe street-fighting (Oct. 4th-6th) became masters of the capital. The king escaped to Ericeira, and thence, with the other members of the royal family, to Gibraltar. Soon afterwards they travelled undisturbed to England, where the king was received by the duke of Orleans. Throughout Portugal the proclamation of a republic was either welcomed or accepted without further resistance. A provisional government was formed under the presidency of Dr Theophilo Braga (b. 1843), a native of the Azores, who had since 1865 been prominent among Portuguese men of letters (see Literature, below). The new government undertook to carry out part of the Republican programme before summoning a constituent assembly to remodel the constitution. Among its most important acts were the expulsion of the religious congregations which had returned after 1834, the nationalization of their property, and the abolition, by decree, of the council of state, the upper house and all hereditary titles or privileges. The Republican programme also included the separation of Church and State, and the concession of local autonomy (on federal lines, if possible) to the provinces and colonies of Portugal. BIBLIOGRAPHY.-1. Sources.-There are separate articles on the Portuguese 15th and 16th-century chroniclers, G. E. de Azurara, J. de Barros, D. de Goes, F. Lopes, J. Osorio da Fonseca, R. de Pina, G. de Resende and L. de Sousa, and on the 19th-century historians, A. Herculano and J. P. Oliveira Martins. The most important collections of documents are Collecção dos livros ineditos, &c., ed. J. F. Corrêa da Serra (11 vols., Lisbon, 1790-1804); Quadro elementar das relações politicas e diplomaticas de Portugal, ed. first by the Viscount de Santarem (1856-1861) and afterwards, under the title of Corpo diplomatico portuguez, by L. A. Rebello da Silva (vols. i.-iv.), J. J. da Silva Mendes Leal (v.-ix.) and J. C. de Freitas Moniz (x., &c.). The Collecção de tratados, &c. (30 vols., Lisbon, 1856-1879), was ed. successively by Viscount J. F. Borges de Castro and J. Judice Biker; it was continued by the Royal Academy as the Nova collecção de tratados (2 vols., Lisbon, 18901891). See also Portugaliae monumenta historica, ed. A. Herculano and J. J. da Silva Mendes Leal (12 parts, Lisbon, 1856-1897); Diogo Barbosa Machado, Bibliotheca lusitana (4 vols., Lisbon, 1741-1759); Innocencio da Silva and (after vol. x.) P. W. de Brito Aranha, Diccionario bibliographico portuguez (Lisbon, 1858, &c.). Periodicals containing valuable historical matter are the Archivo historico portuguez (Lisbon, 1903, &c.), the Boletim of the Lisbon Geographical Society (1873, &c.), and Portugalia (Oporto, 1898, &c.). 2. General Histories.-The Historia de Portugal, by J. P. Oliveira Martins (2 vols., 4th ed., Lisbon, 1901), is a series of brilliant impressionist studies. There is a popular illustrated Historia de Portugal, by A. Ennes, M. Pinheiro Chagas and others, in 37 parts (Lisbon, 1877-1883). See also H. Morse Stephens, Portugal, 4th ed., with additional chapter on the reign of D. Carlos, by Martin Hume (London, 1908); E. MacMurdo, History of Portugal (2 vols., London, 1888-1889); H. Schaefer, Geschichte von Portugal (5 vols., 2nd ed., Hamburg, 1874).

For

3. Special Periods.-A. Herculano's classic Historia de Portugal (4 vols., Lisbon, 1846-1853) covers the period up to 1279. H. da Gama Barros, Historia da administração publica em Portugal nos seculos XII. á XV. (2 vols., Lisbon, 1895-1896) is a scientific study of the highest value. For the periods 1415-1460 and 1750-1777, see the authorities quoted under HENRY THE NAVIGATOR, and POMBAL. A critical bibliography for the period 1460-1580 is given by K. G. Jayne, in Vasco da Gama, &c. (London, 1910). later history, see L. A. Rebello da Silva, Historia de Portugal nos seculos XVII. e XVIII. (5 vols., Lisbon, 1860-1871); J. M. Latino Coelho, Historia de Portugal desde os fins do XVIII. seculo até 1814 (3 vols., Lisbon, 1874-1891); the authorities cited under PENINSULAR WAR; S. J. da Luz Soriano, Historia da guerraem Portugal (19 vols., Lisbon, 1866-1890); J. P. Oliveira Martins, Portugal contemporaneo (1826-1868), (2 vols., 4th ed., Lisbon, 1906); J. L. Freire de Carvalho, Memorias... para... a usurpação de D. Miguel (4 vols., Lisbon, 1841-1849); Sir C. Napier, An Account of the War. between D. Pedro and D. Miguel (2 vols., London, 1835); W. Bollaert, The Wars of Succession of Portugal and Spain, (K. G. J.) from 1821 to 1840 (2 vols., London, 1870).

LITERATURE

The Portuguese language can be most conveniently described in relation to the other languages of the Peninsula (see SPAIN: Language). Portuguese literature is distinguished by the wealth and variety of its lyric poetry, by its primacy in bucolic verse and prose, by the number of its epics and historical books, by the relative slightness of the epistolary element, and by the almost complete absence of the memoir. Rich as its romanceiro is, its volume is far less than the Spanish, but the carcioneiros

remain to prove that the early love songs of the whole Peninsula | illustrated in the Cancioneiro da Ajuda, the oldest collection of were written in Portuguese, while the primitive prose redaction Peninsular verse. The apogee of palace poetry dates from of Amadis, the prototype of all romances of chivalry, was 1275 to 1280, when young King Diniz displayed his exceptional almost certainly made in Portugal, and a native of the same talents in a circle formed by the best troubadours of his father country produced in the Diana of Montemôr (Montemayor) | Alphonso III. and the veterans of his grandfather Alphonso II, the masterpiece of the pastoral novel. The Lusiads may be whose song-book, Cantigas de S. Maria, contains the choicest called at once the most successful epic cast in the classical religious verse of the age. Diniz, who had been educated mould, and the most national of poems, and the great historical by Amyeric of Cahors, proved himself the most fecund poetmonuments and books of travel of the 16th and 17th centuries king of his day, though the pleiad of fidalgos forming his court, are worthy of a nation of explorers who carried the banner of and the jogracs who flocked there from all parts, were fewer the Quinas to the ends of the earth. On the other hand Portugal in number, less productive, and lacked the originality, vigour gave birth to no considerable dramatist from the time of Gil and brilliance of the singers who versified round Alphonso III. Vicente, in the 16th century, until that of Garrett in the 19th, The principal names of the Dionysian period (1284-1325) and it has failed to develop a national drama. which is illustrated in the Cancioneiro da Vaticana are the king himself and his bastards D. Alphonso Sanches and D. Pedro, count of Barcellos. Of the two last, the former sings of love well and sincerely, while the latter is represented by love songs replete with false sentiment and by some rather gross songs of maldizer, a form which, if it rarely contains much poetical feeling or literary value, throws considerable light on the society of the time.

Its geographical position and history have rendered Portugal very dependent for intellectual stimulus and literary culture on foreign countries, and writers on Portuguese literature are wont to divide their subjects into periods corresponding to the literary currents from abroad which have modified its evolution. To summarize, the first literary activity of Portugal was derived from Provence, and Provençal taste ruled for more than a century; the poets of the 15th century imitated the Castilians, and the 16th saw the triumph of Italian or classical influence. Spain again imposed its literary standards and models in the 17th century, France in the 18th, while the Romantic movement reached Portugal by way of England and France; and those countries, and in less degree Germany, have done much to shape the literature of the 19th century. Yet as regards the Peninsula, the literatures of Portugal and Castile act and react on one another and if the latter gave much, she also received much, for nearly every Portuguese author of renown from 1450 until the 18th century, except Antonio Ferreira, wrote in Spanish, and some, like Jorge de Montemôr and Manoel de Mello, produced masterpieces in that language and are numbered as Spanish classics. Again, in no country was the victory of the Italian Renaissance and the classical revival so complete, so enduring.

But notwithstanding all its dependence on classical and foreign authors, Portuguese literature has a distinct individuality which appears in the romanceiro, in the songs named cantares de amigo of the cancioneiros, in the Chronicles of Fernão Lopes, in the Historia tragico-maritima, in the plays of Gil Vicente, in the bucolic verse and prose of the early 16th century, in the Letters of Marianna Alcoforado and, above all, in The Lusiads. Early Period.-Though no literary documents belonging to the first century of Portuguese history have survived, there is evidence that an indigenous popular poetry both Poetry. sacred and profane existed, and while Provençal influences moulded the manifestations of poetical talent for nearly two hundred years, they did not originate them. The close relations that prevailed between the reigning houses of Portugal, Provence and Aragon, cemented by intermarriages, introduced a knowledge of the gay science, but it reached Portugal by many other ways-by the crusaders who came to help in fighting the Moors, by the foreign prelates who occupied Peninsular sees, by the monastic and military orders who founded establishments in Portugal, by the visits of individual singers to court and baronial houses, but chiefly perhaps by the pilgrims who streamed from every country along the Frankish way to the far-famed shrine of Santiago de Compostela. Already by the end of the 12th century the lyric poetry of the troubadours had found cultivators in Portugal, and a few compositions which have come down to us bear a date slightly anterior to the year 1200. One of the earliest singers was D: Gil Sanches, an illegitimate son of Sancho I., and we possess a cantar de amigo in Galician-Portuguese, the first literary vehicle of the whole Peninsula, which appears to be the work of Sancho himself, and addressed to his concubine, A. Ribeirinha. Alphonsine period to which these men belong runs from 1200 to 1245 and produced little of moment, but in 1248 the accession of King Alphonso III., who had lived thirteen years in France, inaugurated a time of active and rich production which is

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The verses of Diniz, essentially a love poet, are conventional in tone and form, but he can write pretty ballads and pastorals when he allows himself to be natural. The Portuguese troubadours belonged to all social classes, and even included a few priests, and though love was their favourite topic they used every kind of verse, and in satire they hold the palm. In other respects they are inferior to their Provençal masters. Speaking generally, the cancioneiros form monotonous reading owing to their poverty of ideas and conventionality of metrical forms and expression, but here and there men of talent who were poets by profession and better acquainted with Provençal literature endeavoured to lend their work variety by the use of difficult processes like the lexaprem and by introducing new forms like the pastorela and the descort. It is curious to note that no heroic songs are met with in the cancioneiros; they are all with one exception purely lyrical in form and tone. The death of King Diniz proved a severe blow to troubadour verse, and the reign of his successor Alphonso IV. witnessed a profound decadence of court poetry, while there is not a single poem by a Portuguese author in the last half of the 14th century, and only the names of a few authors have survived, among them the Galicians Vasco Pires de Camoens, an ancestor of Luiz de Camoens, and the typical lover Macias. The romanceiro, comprising romances of adventures, war and chivalry, together with religious and sea songs, forms a rich collection of ballad poetry which continued in process of elaboration throughout the whole of the middle ages, but unfortunately the oldest specimens have perished and scarcely any of those existing bear a date anterior to the 15th century. Epic poetry in Portugal developed much later than lyric, but the signal victory of the united Christian hosts over the Moors at the battle of the Salado in 1340 gave occasion to an epic by Alphonso Giraldes of which some fragments remain.

The first frankly literary prose documents appear in the 14th century, and consist of chronicles, lives of saints and genealogical

treatises. The more important are the Chronica Early Prose. breve do archivo nacional, the Chronicas de S. Cr.. de Coimbra, the Chronica da conquista do L'arte and the Livros dos Linhagens, aristocratic registers, portions of which, like the story of King Arthur, have considerable literary interest. All the above may be found in the Portugalice monumenta historica, scriptores, while the Life of St Elizabeth of Portugal is included in the Monarchia lusitana; Romania has printed the following hagiographical texts belonging to the same century -the Vida de Eufrosina, the Vida de Maria Egypcia and the Vida de Sancto Amaro; the Vida de Santo Eloy has appeared in the Instituto and the Vida dos Santos Barlaão e Jusafate has been issued by the Lisbon Academy of Sciences.

Romances of chivalry belonging to the various cycles must have penetrated into Portugal at an early date, and the Nobiliario of the Conde D. Pedro contains the genealogy of Arthur and the adventures of Lear and Merlin. There exists a mid14th-century Historia do Santo Graal, and an unprinted Josep

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ab Aramadia, while, though the MS. is lost, we have abundant | include D. João Manuel, D. João de Menezes. João Rodrigues de evidence of the existence of a primitive Portuguese prose Sá e Menczes, Diogo Brandão, Duarte de Brito and Fernão da redaction of Amadis de Gaula anterior to the present Spanish Silveira. The literary progenitors of the cancioneiro were the text. Furthermore, the Livro de Esopo published by Dr Leite Spanish poets Juan de Mena, Jorge Manrique, Garci-Sanchez de Vasconcellos also belongs to the period, and there are other de Badajos and Rodriguez del Padron, and its main subjects works in MS. are love, satire and epigram. The epic achievements of the Portuguese in that century, the discoveries and the wars in Africa, hardly find an echo, even in the verses of those who had taken part in them. Instead, an atmosphere of artificiality surrounds these productions, and the verses that reveal genuine poetical feeling are very few. They include a lament of Garcia de Resende on the death of Ignez de Castro which probably inspired the inimitable stanzas dedicated to the same subject in The Lusiads, the Fingimento de Amores by Diogo Brandão, the Coplas of D. Pedro already referred to, and a number of minor pieces. However, some names appeared in the Cancioneiro Gerale which were to be among the foremost in Portuguese literature, e.g. Bernardim Ribeiro, Christovam Falcão, Gil Vicente, and Sá de Miranda, who represent the transition between the Spanish school of the 15th and the Italian school of the 16th century, the members of which are called Os Quinhentistas. Ribeiro and Falcão, the introducers of the bucolic style, put new life into the old forms, and by their eclogues in redondilhas, breathing the deepest and most genuine feeling in verses of perfect harmony, they gave models which subsequent writers worked by but could never equal.

The 15th Century.-In the reign of John I. the court became an important literary centre, the king himself composed a Livro de Montaria, so far unedited, and his sons are rightly described as Camoens as “inclyta geração, altos Infantes." King Edward (Duarte) collected a precious library composed of the ancient classics, some translated by his order, as well as medieval poems and histories, and he wrote a moral treatise Leal comselheiro, and hints on horsemanship, or Livro da ensinança de bem cavalgar toda sella. His brother D. Pedro also wrote a moral treatise Da virtuosa Bemfeitoria, and caused Vegetius's De re militari and Cicero's De officiis to be turned into Portuguese. This travelled prince brought back from Venice a MS. of Marco Polo, the gift of the Senate, and is still remembered | by the people through the story Livro das viagens do Infante D. Pedro o qual andou ás sete partidas do mundo, reprinted almost yearly, of which he is the hero. All the monarchs of the 15th century were highly educated men and patrons of letters; indeed, even that typical medieval knight Alphonso V. confesses, in his correspondence with Azurara, that the sword avails nothing without the pen. The age is noted for its chronicles, beginning with the anonymous life of the Portuguese Cid, the Holy Constable Nuno Alvares Pereira, told in charming infantile prose, the translated Chronica da fundição do moesteyro de Sam Vicente, and the Vida de D. Tello. Fernão Lopes (q.v.), the father of Portuguese history and author of chronicles of King Pedro, King Ferdinand and King John I., has been called by Southey the best chronicler of any age or nation. Gomes Eannes de Azurara completed Lopes's chronicle of King John by describing the capture of Ceuta, and wrote a chronicle of D. Pedro de Menezes, governor of the town down to 1437, and a chronicle of D. Duarte de Menezes, captain of Alcacer, but his capital work is the chronicle of the conquest of Guinea (see Azurara).

Though not a great chronicler or an artist like Lopes, Ruy de Pina (q.v.) is free from the rhetorical defects of Azurara, and his chronicles of King Edward and King Alphonso V. are characterized by unusual frankness, and meritorious both as history and literature. All these three writers combined the posts of keeper of the archives and royal chronicler, and were, in fact, the king's men, though Lopes at least seems rather the historian of a people than the oracle of a monarch. Garcia de Resende (q.v.) | appropriated Pina's chronicle of King John II., and after adding a wealth of anecdote and gossip and casting the glamour of poetry | over a somewhat dry record, he reissued it under his own name. The taste for romances of chivalry continued throughout the 15th century, but of all that were produced the only one that has come down to us is the Estorea do Imperador Vespasiano, an introduction to the Graal Cycle, based on the apocryphal gospel of Nicodemus.

Verse.

The Constable D. Pedro of Portugal, son of the prince of that name already referred to, has left some verses marked by elevation of thought and deep feeling, the Satyra de felice e infelice vida, and the death of his sister inspired his Tragedia de la reiña Isabel; but he is best remembered by his Coplas del contempto del mundo in the Cancioneiro Geral. Though he actually drafted the first in his native tongue, all these poems are in Castilian, and D. Pedro is one of the first representatives of those Spanish influences which set aside the Provençal manner and in its place adopted a taste for allegory and a reverence for classical antiquity, both imported from Italy. It was to the constable that the marquis de Santillana addressed his historic letter dealing with the origins of Peninsular verse. The court poetry of the reigns of King Alphonso V. and King John II., so far as it survives, is contained in the lyrical collection known as the Cancioneiro Geral, compiled by Garcia de Resende and printed in 1516. Nearly three hundred authors are there represented by pieces in Portuguese and Castilian, and they

Velha.

The Drama.-The history of the modern drama begins with religious plays, followed at a later period by moralitics, and thence, by an easy transition, by the farce. This transition from the presentment of traditional types to the modern play can be traced in the works of Gil Vicente, the father of the Portuguese theatre. His first efforts belonged to the religious drama, and some of the more notable had edification for their object, e.g. the Barca do Inferno, but even in this class he soon introduces the comic element by way of relief, and in course of time he arrives at pure comedy and develops the study of character. For a detailed description and criticism of his work, see VICENTE. In the various towns where he stayed and produced his plays, writers for the stage sprang up, and these formed the Eschola Velha or school of Gil Vicente. To name the best Gil Vicente known, Evora, the city of culture, produced Affonso and the Alvarez, author of religious pieces, Antonio Ribeiro, Eschola nicknamed "the Chiado," an unfrocked friar with a strong satirical vein who wrote farces in the Bazochian style, and his brother Jeronimo Ribeiro. In Santarem appeared Antonio Prestes, a magistrate who drew from his judicial experience but evinced more knowledge of folk-lore than dramatic talent, while Camoens himself was so far influenced by Gil Vicente, whose plays he had perhaps seen performed in Lisbon, that in spite of his Coimbra training he never exchanged the old forms for those of the classical comedy. His Amphitryons is a free imitation of the Latin, yet thoroughly national in spirit and cast in the popular redondilha; the dialogue is spirited, the situations comic. King Seleucus derives from Plutarch and has a prose prologue of real interest for the history of the stage, while Filodemo is a clever tragi-comedy in verse with prose dialogues interspersed. Another poet of the same school is Balthazar Dias, the blind poet, whose simple religious autos are still performed in the villages, and are continually reprinted, the best liked being the Auto of St Alexis, and the Auto of St Catherine. He is purely medieval in subject and spirit, his lyrics are perfect in form and expression, his diction thoroughly popular. One of the last dramatists of the 16th century belonging to the old school was Simão Machado, who wrote the Comedy of Diu and the Enchantments of Alfea, two long plays almost entirely in Spanish, and full of digressions only made tolerable by the beauty of their lyrics.

Except Camoens, all these men, though disciples of Gil Vicente, are decidedly inferior to him in dramatic invention, fecundity and power of expression, and they were generally of humble social position. Moreover the favour of the court was withdrawn on the death of Gil Vicente, and this meant much, for

best elements of the Italian and the popular muse, using the forms of the one to express the spirit and traditions of the other, and when he employs the medida velha, it becomes in his hands a vehicle for thought, whereas before it had usually served merely to express emotions.

there existed no educated middle class to support a national | contains some beautiful eclogues as well as cartas in the bucolic theatre. At the same time the old dramatists had to face the style, while the odes, sonnets, and eclogues of Frei Agostinho opposition of the classical school, which appealed to the cultured, are full of mystic charm. Camoens (q.v.) is, as Schlegel remarked, and the hostility of the Inquisition, which early declared war an entire literature in himself, and some critics rate him even on the popular plays on account of their grossness, and after-higher as a lyric than as an epic poet. He unites and fuses the wards through the index prohibited altogether even the religious autos, as it had condemned the Italian comedies. The way was thus clear for the Jesuits, who, with their Latin tragi-comedies or dramatized allegories written to commemorate saints or for scholastic festivals, succeeded for a time in supplanting both the popular pieces of the old school and the plays modelled on the masterpieces of Greece and Rome. The old dramatists came to write for the lower classes only, and though the school lingered on, its productions were performed solely by travelling companies at country fairs. Though we know that much has perished, the four Indexes of the 16th century give some idea of the rich repertory of the popular theatre, and of the efforts necessary to destroy it; moreover, the Spanish Index of 1559, by forbidding autos of Gil Vicente and other Portuguese authors, is interesting evidence of the extent to which they were appreciated in the neighbouring country.

The Renaissance.-The movement commonly called the Renaissance reached Portugal both indirectly through Spain and directly from Italy, with which last country it maintained close literary relations throughout the 15th century. King Alphonso V. had been the pupil of Matthew of Pisa and summoned Justus Balduinus to his court to write the national history in Latin, while later King John II. corresponded with Politian, and early in his reign the first printing-press got to work. In the next century many famous humanists took up their abode in Portugal. Nicholas Cleynarts taught the Infant Henry, afterwards cardinal and king, and lectured on the classics at Braga and Evora, Vasaeus directed a school of Latin at Braga, and George Buchanan accompanied other foreign professors to Coimbra when King John III. reformed the university. Many distinguished Portuguese teachers returned from abroad to assist the king at the same time, among them Ayres Barbosa from Salamanca, André de Gouveia of the Parisian college of St Barbe, whom Montaigne dubbed "the greatest principal of France," Achilles Estaço and Diogo de Teive.

At home Portugal produced André de Resende (q.v.), author of the Historia da antiguidade da cidade de Evora and De antiquitatibus Lusitaniae, and Francisco de Hollanda, painter, architect, and author of, inter alia, the Quatro dialogos da pintura antiga. Moreover, women took a share in the intellectual movement of the time, and the sisters Luisa and Angela | Sigêa, Joanna Vaz and Paula Vicente, daughter of Gil Vicente, constituted an informal female academy under the presidency of the Infanta D. Maria, daughter of King Manoel. Luisa Sigêa was both an orientalist and a Latin poetess, while Publia Hortensia de Castro, after a course of humanities, philosophy and theology, defended theses at Evora in her eighteenth year.

The Italian school was founded by Sá de Miranda (q.v.), a man of noble character who, on his return in 1526 from a six The Italian years' stay in Italy, where he had foregathered with School or Os the leading writers of the day, initiated a reform of Quinhen- Portuguese literature which amounted to a revolutistas. tion. He introduced and practised the forms of the sonnet, canzon, ode, epistle in oitava rima and in tercets, and the epigram, and raised the whole tone of poetry. At the same time he gave fresh life to the national redondilha metre (medida velha) by his Cartas or Satiras which with his Eclogues, some in Portuguese, others in Castilian, are his most successful compositions. His chief disciple, Antonio Ferreira (q.v.), a convinced classicist, went further, and dropping the use of Castilian, wrote sonnets much superior in form and style, though they lack the rustic atmosphere of those of his master, while his odes and epistles are too obviously reminiscent of Horace. D. Manoel de Portugal, Pero de Andrade Caminha, Diogo Bernardes, Frei Agostinho da Cruz and André Falcão de Resende continued the erudite school, which, after considerable opposition, definitely triumphed in the person of Luiz de Camoens. The Lima of Bernardes

His Lusiads, cast in the Virgilian mould, celebrates the combination of faith and patriotism which led to the discoveries and conquests of the Portuguese, and though the, Epic Poetry. voyage of Vasco da Gama occasioned its composition" and formed the skeleton round which it grew, its true subject is the peito illustre lusitano. Immediately on its appearance The Lusiads took rank as the national poem par excellence, and its success moved many writers to follow in the same path; of these the most successful was Jeronymo Corte Real (q.v.). All these poems, like the Elegiada of Luis Pereira Brandão on the disaster of Al Kasr, the Primeiro cerco de Diu of the chronicler Francisco de Andrade, and even the Affonso Africano of Quevedo, for all its futile allegory, contain striking episodes and vigorous and well-coloured descriptive passages, but they cannot compare with The Lusiads in artistic value.

The return of Sá de Miranda from Italy operated to transform the drama as well as lyric poetry. He found the stage occupied mainly by religious plays in which there appeared The no trace of the Greek or Roman theatre, and, Classical admiring what he had seen in Italy, he and his Comedy and followers protested against the name auto, restored Tragedy. that of comedy, and substituted prose for verse. They generally chose the plays of Terence as models, yet their life is conventional and their types are not Portuguese but Roman-Italian. The revived classical comedy was thus so bound down by respect for authority as to have little chance of development, while its language consisted of a latinized prose from which the emotions were almost absent. Though it secured the favour of the humanists and the nobility, and banished the old popular plays from both court and university soon after Gil Vicente's death, its victory was shortlived. Jorge Ferreira de Vasconcellos, who produced in the Eufrosina the first prose play, really belongs to the Spanish school, yet, though he wrote under the influence of the Celestina, which had a great vogue in Portugal, and of Roman models, his types, language and general characteristics are deeply national. However, even if they had stage qualities, the very length of this and his other plays, the Ulisipo and the Aulegraphia, would prevent their performance, but in fact they are novels in dialogue containing a treasury of popular lore and wise and witty sayings with a moral object. So decisive was the success of Jorge Ferreira's new invention, notwithstanding its anonymity, that it decided S& de Miranda to attempt the prose comedy. He modelled himself on the Roman theatre as reflected by the plays of Ariosto, and he avowedly wrote the Estrangeiros to combat the school of Gil Vicente, while in it, as in Os Villalpandos, the action takes place in Italy. Antonio Ferreira, the chief dramatist of the classical school, knew both Greek and Latin as well as Miranda, but far surpassed him in style. He attempted both comedy and tragedy, and his success in the latter branch is due to the fact that he was not content to seek inspiration from Seneca, as were most of the tragedians of the 16th century, but went straight to the fountain heads, Sophocles and Euripides. His Bristo is but a youthful essay, but his second piece, O Cioso, is almost a comedy of character, though both are Italian even in the names of the personages. Ferreira's real claim to distinction, however, rests on Ignes de Castro (see FERREIRA).

The principal form taken by prose writing in the 16th century was historical, and a pleiad of distinguished writers arose to narrate the discoveries and conquests in Asia, Africa and the ocean. Many of them saw the achievements they relate and were inspired by patriotism to record them, so that their writings

16thCentury Prose:

lack that serene atmosphere of critical appreciation which is looked for if history is to take its place as a science. In the four decades of his Asia, João de Barros, the Livy of his country, tells in simple vigorous language the "deeds achieved by the Portuguese in the disHistory. covery and conquest of the seas and lands of the Orient." His first decade undoubtedly influenced Camoens, and together the two men fixed the Portuguese written tongue, the one by his prose, the other by his verse. The decades, which were continued by Diogo do Couto, a more critical writer and a clear and correct stylist, must be considered the noblest historical monument of the century (see BARROS). Couto is also responsible for some acute observations on the causes of Portuguese decadence in the East, entitled Soldado practico.

The word encyclopaedist fits Damião de Goes, a diplomatist, traveller, humanist and bosom friend of Erasmus. One of the most critical spirits of the age, his chronicle of King Manoel, the Fortunate Monarch, which he introduced by one of Prince John, afterwards King John II., is worthy of the subject and the reign in which Portugal attained the apogee of its greatness. Goes (q.v.) wrote a number of other historical and descriptive works in Portuguese and Latin, some of which were printed during his residence in the Low Countries and contributed to his deserved fame. After twenty years of investigation at Goa, Fernão Lopes de Castanheda issued his Historia do de- | scobrimento e conquista da India pelos Portuguezes (Lisbon, 15521554 and 1561), a book that ranks besides those of Barros and Couto. Antonio Galvão, who, after governing the Moluccas with rare success and integrity, had been offered the native throne of Ternate, went home in 1540, and died a pauper in a hospital, his famous treatise only appearing posthumously. The Tratado dos diversos . . caminhos por onde a pimenta e especiaria veyo da India. . . e assim de todos os descubrimentos que são feitos em a era de 1560 has been universally recognized as of unique historical value. Like the preceding writers, Gaspar Correia or Corrêa lived long years in India and embodied his intimate knowledge of its manners and customs in the picturesque prose of the Lendas da India, which embraces the events of the years 1497 to 1550. Among other historical works dealing with the East are the Commentarios de Affonso d'Albuquerque, an account of the life of the great captain and administrator, by his natural son, and the Tratado das cousas da China e de Ormuz, by Frei Gaspar da Cruz.

Coming back to strictly Portuguese history, we have the uncritical Chronica de D. João III. by Francisco de Andrade, and the Chronica de D. Sebastião by Frei Bernardo da Cruz, who was with the king at Al Kasr al Kebir, while Miguel Leitão de Andrade, who was taken prisoner in that battle, related his experiences and preserved many popular traditions and customs in his Miscellanea. Bishop Osorio (q.v.), a scholar of European reputation, wrote chiefly in Latin, and his capital work, a chronicle of King Manoel, is in that tongue.

The books of travel of this century are unusually important because their authors were often the first Europeans to visit or at least to study the countries they refer to. They include, to quote the more noteworthy, the Descobrimento de Frolida, the Itinerario of Antonio Tenreiro, the Verdadeira informacão das terras do Preste João by Francisco Alvares and the Ethiopia oriental by Frei João dos Santos, both dealing with Abyssinia, the Itinerario da terra santa by Frei Pantalcão de Aveiro, and that much-translated classic, the Historia da vida do padre Francisco Xavier by Padre João de Lucena. Fernão Cardim in his Narrativa epistolar records a journey through Brazil, and Pedro Teixeira relates his experiences in Persia. But the work that holds the palm in its class is the Peregrinação which Fernão Mendes Pinto (q.v.), the famous adventurer, composed in his old age for his children's reading. While Mendes Pinto and his book are typically Portuguese of that age, the Historia tragicomaritima, sometimes designated the prose epic of saudade, is equally characteristic of the race of seamen which produced it. This collection of twelve stories of notable wrecks which befell Portuguese ships between 1552 and 1604 contains that of the

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galleon "St John " on the Natal coast, an event which inspired Corte-Real's epic poem as well as some poignant stanzas in The Lusiads, and the tales form a model of simple spontaneous popular writing.

The romance took many forms, and in two of them at least works appeared which exercised very considerable influence abroad. The Menina e moça of Bernardim Ribeiro, Romances, a tender pastoral story inspired by saudade for his &c. lady-love, probably moved Montemôr or Montemayor (q.v.) to write his Diana, and may some fifty years later have suggested the Lusitania transformada to Fernão Alvares do Oriente, who, however, like Ribeiro, owes some debt to Sannazaro's Arcadia. To name the Palmeirim d'Inglaterra of Moraes (q.v.) is to mention a famous book from which, we are told, Burke quoted in the House of Commons, while Cervantes had long previously declared that it ought to be guarded as carefully as the works of Homer. Like most successful romances of chivalry, it had a numerous progeny, but its sequels, D. Duardos by Diogo Fernandes, and D. Clarisel de Bretanha by Gonçalves Lobato, are quite inferior. The historian Barros tried his youthful pen in a romance of chivalry, the Chronica do Imperador Clarimundo, while in another branch, and a popular one in Portugal, the Arthurian cycle, the dramatist Ferreira de Vasconcellos wrote Sagramor or Memorial das proesas da segunda Tavola Redonda. A book of quite a different order is the Contos de proveito e exemplo by Fernandes Trancoso, containing a series of twenty-nine tales derived from tradition or imitated from Boccaccio and others, which enjoyed deserved favour for more than a century.

Samuel Usque, a Lisbon Jew, deserves a place to himself for his Consolaçam ás tribulações de Israel, where he exposes the persecutions endured by his countrymen in every age down to his time; the book takes the dialogue form, and its diction is elegant and pure. The important part taken by Portuguese prelates and theologians at the Council of Trent stimulated religious writing, most of it in Latin, but Frei Bartholomeu dos Martyres, archbishop of Braga, wrote a Cathecismo da doutrina Christä, Frei Luiz de Granada a Compendio de Doutrina Christå and Sermões, all in Portuguese, and other notable pulpit orator include Diogo de Paiva de Andrade, Padre Luiz Alvares, Dori Antonio Pinheiro and Frei Miguel dos Santos, who preached at the obsequies of King Sebastian.

Among the moralists of the time three at least deserve the title of masters of prose style, Heitor Pinto for his Imagens da vida Christă, Bishop Arráez for his Dialogos, and Frei Thomé de Jesus for his noble devotional treatise Trabalhos de Jesus, while the maxims of Joanna da Gama, entitled Ditos da Freira, though lacking depth, form a curious psychological document. The ranks of scientists include the cosmographer Pedro Nunes (Nonius), a famous mathematician, and the botanist Garcia da Orta, whose Colloquios dos simples e drogas was the first book to be printed in the East (1563), while the form of Aristotelian scholastic philosophy known as Philosophia conimbricensis had a succession of learned exponents. As, however, their vehicle was Latin, a mere mention must suffice, and for the same reason only the title of a notable book by Francisco Sanches can be given, the De nobili et prima universali scientia quod nihil scitur.

In 1536 Fernão de Oliveira published the first Portuguese grammar, and three years later the historian Barros brought out his Cartinha para aprender a ler, and in 1540 his Grammatica. Magalhães Gandavo printed some rules on orthography in 1574. Nunes de Leão also produced a treatise on orthography in 1576 and a work on the origins of the language in 1605, and Jeronymo Cardoso gave his countrymen a Latin and Portuguese dictionary. The 17th Century.-The gigantic efforts put forth in every department of activity during the 16th century led to the inevitable reaction. Energy was worn out, patriotic Os Seiscenardour declined into blind nationalist vanity, and tistas. rhetoric conquered style. From a literary as from Lyric a political point of view the 17th century found Portugal in a lamentable state of decadence which dated from

Poetry.

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