Of the writings of Aretaus we have eight books; two on acute and two on chronic diseases generally, and two on each of these divisions descriptive of their particular symptoms. It is impossible to read Aretæus without being forcibly reminded of the great father of physic. The correspondence of style, mode of description of symptoms, observation of nature, sagacity of diagnosis, order in the statement of causes, judicious selection of remedies, &c., are manifest. He precedes his history of diseases by an anatomical introduction upon the organs affected. Anatomy was then in its infancy, and great difficulties existed to its progress. The errors of Aretaus in this branch are therefore necessarily numerous. He considered the heart to be the principle of life and strength, and in which the soul and nature of man held their residence. He looked upon it as the source of respiration, being placed in the centre of the lungs. These organs he considered as active, their motions being dependent on their small nerves. The venous system, according to him, took its origin from the liver. He admitted, with Erisistratus, that the nerves were the organs of sensation and motion. These ideas he endeavoured to apply to his views of disease. Shortly after the establishment of the sect of the Methodists in physic, the Pneumatists and Eclectics arose, the latter of which attempted to reconcile the doctrines of the Empirics and the Methodists. Aretæus seems to have taken for the basis of his doctrine that of the Pneumatists, but he reduced their principles to a more scientific form, and enriched it by a number of valuable observations. The practice of Aretæus was, however, in accordance with that of Hippocrates; it was founded on experience and an attentive observation of nature. In his mode of treatment he rarely employed other than the most simple means, and his remedies were few in number. He employed bleeding in many cases, and in several to a great extent. He used arteriotomy behind the ears in severe affections of the head. Emetics (of white hellebore especially) he used extensively. He attended particularly to the diet of his patients, and did more in this respect than by the employment of pharmaceutical means. In chronic diseases his practice was often bold. In epilepsy he did not hesitate to make a perforation in the skull, for which practice, however, it would be difficult to find any thing like a satisfactory reason;

the cautery was of common application. He states elephantiasis to be infectious. He deserves notice, as having been the first medical writer to observe particularly the influence which the mind exerts over the body, and that exercised also by the body over the mind; influences, for which, with the modesty associated with science, he does not attempt to account. He is the earliest writer to recommend the employment of cantharides to produce vesications. Prior to this time, mustard and the plant called thapsia were used for this purpose.

From the works of Aretæus which are preserved to us, it is evident that he had composed others which are lost; on surgery, fevers, the diseases of women, the preparation of medicines, &c. The works we possess are also imperfect, and their unrivalled excellence materially excites regret for the absence of any part. His works have been published in Greek, Latin, and other languages. In Greek, the first edition is that of J. Goupyl, Paris, 1554, 8vo, which was reprinted by Henry Stephen, in the collection Medica Artis Principes, Paris, 1567, folio. There is another Greek edition by Turnebus, Ex Bibl. Reg. printed also at Paris, 1554, 8vo. In Greek and Latin, an edition by George Henisch was printed at Vienna in 1603, and again in 1627 in folio. Wigan of Oxford published an edition taken from two Greek MSS. with notes, prefaces, critical dissertations, &c., at Oxford, 1723, folio. Triller published some remarks on this edition. Boerhaave edited an edition at Leyden in 1731, in folio. He followed the Greek text of Goupyl, and the Latin version of Crassus, and he has given a commentary, by Peter Petit, on the first three books, which were written in 1662, and separately printed by Mattaire at London, in 1726. A second edition by Boerhaave, with additional notes and observations, was printed in 1735. This is esteemed the best edition of the works of Aretaus Haller printed an edition also in his Medice Artis Principes, at Lausanne, in 1772 and 1787, which is not considered of importance. The first edition of Aretæus was published in the Latin language, by Junius Paulus Crassus, a professor at Padua, and printed by the Juntas at Venice, 1552, in 4to. Of this version several editions were published; at Paris, 1554, 16mo; Basil, 1581, 4to; Argent. 1768, 12mo. Translations have also been published in German by Dr. Dewaz, Vienne, 1790-1802, 8vo, 2 vols.

In English by Dr. Moffatt, Lond. 1785, 8vo; and a translation is said to have been made into French by Lefebvre de Villebrune, but it has never been printed.

ARETAPHILA, daughter of Æglatos, wife of Melanippus, a priest of Cyrene, lived in the time of the Mithridatic war. Nicocrates, tyrant of Cyrene, killed her husband Phædrinus, and forced her to marry him. Aretaphila never lost sight of schemes of revenge, and having failed in an attempt to poison Nicocrates, she engaged Leander his brother, who had married her daughter, to murder him. He did so, but possessed himself of the sovereign power, and the freedom of Cyrene was as remote as ever. Aretaphila afterwards procured his death, by means of Anabus, a Libyan chief, and established a free government in Cyrene. (Plut. De Virtute Mulierum. Polyæn. viii. c. 38.)

ARETAS. The name of several kings of Arabia Petræa. The first whose name is recorded defeated Jason, the leader of the Jews, about 170 B. c. A second possessed himself of Cole-Syria, about 84 B.C., and coined money in his name, as king of Damascus. Another Aretas, king of Damascus, is mentioned by

St. Paul.

ARETE, a daughter of Aristippus, and one of the few ladies of antiquity who devoted themselves to philosophy.

ARETIN, (Jean Adam Christophe Joseph, the baron,) was born at Ingoldstadt in 1769, died in 1822. He filled some of the highest state offices in Bavaria, and in 1817 represented that kingdom in the Germanic Diet. He was the author of some publications, an amateur in the fine arts, and possessed an exceedingly fine collection of paintings and engravings. (Biog. Univ. Suppl.)

ARETIN, (Jean Christophe Frederic, the baron,) brother to the preceding, born in 1773, was a person of considerable political and literary celebrity. He was actively engaged in public affairs from his first appearance at Munich in 1793, at the court of the elector of Bavaria, till his death in 1824; but did not succeed in his attempt to combine with these engagements the pursuits of a learned scholar. His literary performances have not much merit, although during five and twenty years he was constantly publishing political pamphlets, and contributing to periodicals, besides being the author of other works, a list of which is given in the Biographie Univerelle. (Biog. Univ. Suppl.)

ARETINO, (Pietro.) This writer, who has obtained so unenviable a celebrity, was born at Arezzo, in April 1492, the natural son of Antonio Bacci, a patrician of that city. Whatever some writers may say of his early studies, it is certain that he never learnt either Latin or Greek; and the little of a general nature which he acquired was picked up here and there, by dipping into the books that were entrusted to him at the time that he was a journeyman to a bookbinder in Perugia. His disposition was lively and ardent, his imagination fervid, to which he joined a great fluency of expression, and an unbounded impudence. A satirical sonnet against indulgences drove him from Arezzo, and his want of religion made him leave Perugia to go to Rome on foot, his whole equipage consisting of the clothes he had on. His first patron was a merchant, Agostino Ghigi, the same for whom Raphael painted the palace called La Farnesina; soon after, he became known to pope Leo X. and to cardinal Giulio de' Medici, who was afterwards pope Clement VII., in whose service he entered, but it is not known in what capacity. Sixteen obscene sonnets which he wrote under sixteen no less disgraceful drawings of Giulio Romano, engraved by Raimondi, obliged him to quit Rome, and Giovanni de Medici, so notorious during the Italian wars by the name of the captain of “ Le Bande nere,” and on whom immorality could make no unfavourable impression, received him under his protection in Milan, and presented him to Francis I., whom he had the good fortune to please by the fulsome praises he lavished on him. At the death of Giovanni he fixed his residence at Venice, having previously made an excursion to Rome, where he was severely wounded, and with difficulty escaped with his life, through the jealousy of a gallant, for some verses which he had written for or against a cook, with whom both of them were in love.

Depending now upon his pen for his livelihood, he began to write prose and verse satires, indelicate dialogues, heroic cantos, sonnets, comedies, besides an immense quantity of letters, which he addressed to all the princes, great men, and ladies of his time, sometimes flattering them or praising himself, and at others even threatening them with the lash of his satire; and from them all he received presents, which enabled him to live a dissolute life. He had the impudence to style himself "Il Divino Aretino;" and

boasted that he was the scourge of princes. He thus levied contributions upon most of the Italian princes, and even men of letters, besides Francis I., Charles V., several popes, Henry VIII. of England, and it is even said from Solyman the sultan of the Turks. At times, however, he met with a reward totally different, and much better deserved. He died suddenly in Venice, in 1557, by overturning his chair in an immoderate fit of laughter at hearing an indecent story of his two sisters, who led a life as infamous as his own.

The nature of most of his works has been already noticed. There are others, which being of a religious cast, have made some writers believe that towards the end of his life he became penitent. This, however, is a mistake; Aretino was never penitent; the motives which prompted him to compose his religious works were as mercenary as those which moved him to write the others. He also has been thought to be the author of the famous book De Tribus Impostoribus. This supposition rests upon an assertion of the celebrated Campanella, who having been accused, as many others before him had been, of being the author of that book, justified himself by saying that it had been printed thirty years before he was born; an epoch which agrees with the time of Aretino. The existence even of this book has been doubted.

For other persons of this name, see ACCOLTI, BRUNI, GUIDO, and SPINELLO.

ARETIUS, (Benedict,) an eminent Swiss divine and botanist, was born at Berne early in the sixteenth century, and became distinguished as a teacher of theology, and preacher of the reformed religion at Marpurg. He died at Berne in 1754. His most important theological works were-Examen Theologicum, a voluminous work, which was printed twelve times within three years; Commentaries on the New Testament; A Life of Gentilis, with a Refutation of his Principles, &c. But Aretius is better known in his other pursuit, which led him into correspondence with nearly all the eminent botanists of his time, who speak highly of his skill and useful researches. He discovered and described forty new Alpine plants, and published Stockhornii et Nessi Helvetiæ Montium, et nascentium in eis Stirpium, Descriptio, impr. in Operibus Val. Cordi. Strasb. 1561. (Biog. Univ.)

ARETUSI, (Cesare, or Munari degli Aretusi,) a Bolognese citizen, and pro

bably born at Modena about 1580, who painted history and portrait, but principally the latter, and flourished about the year 1606. He formed his taste by copying the works of Bagnacavallo, at Bologna. He was invited by Ranuccio, duke of Parma, to become court painter, and in 1587 employed by him in painting, in the new buildings of S. Giovanni, copies of the pictures of Correggio, which had decorated the old structure. As a portrait painter, he attained to great eminence, and was patronized in that capacity by many of the Italian princes. He had the power of assuming the style of almost every painter, and in many instances is said to have passed off his copies for the originals. In his imitation of Correggio he was particularly successful, and having copied the celebrated Night by that master, for the church of S. Giovanni di Parma, he obtained the honour of restoring the painting formerly executed by Correggio in the same church as mentioned above. Ruta, in his Guida, says his success in this performance was such, "from its accurate imitation of the taste displayed in the original, of its conception, and of its harmony, as to lead those unacquainted with the fact to suppose it to be the work of Allegri." În conjunction with Gio. Batista Fiorini, he painted the cupola of the cathedral of S. Pietro, at Bologna. His portrait, painted by himself, for the gallery of the grand duke, is engraved by P. A. Pazzi. He died in 1612. (Lanzi, Stor. Pitt. iv. 32, 89; v. 51. Bryan's Dict. Heinecken, Dict. des Artistes.)

AREUS, son of Acrotatus, king of Sparta, 309 B. C., lost his life in battle with Antigonus Gonatas, at Corinth, 268 B. C. (Paus. iii. c. 6.)

AREZZO, (the Cardinal Thomas,) was born in 1756, at Orbitello, in Tuscany. After having filled other stations, he was sent by Pius VII. as nuncio to St. Petersburg, on a mission for the reconciliation of the Greek church to that of Rome. Much had been agreed on between him and Paul, when the death of that king put an end to the negotiation. He was residing as legate at Dresden in 1807, from which place Napoleon sent for him to Berlin, and communicated to him some of his designs upon the pontifical sovereignty. It appears that Arezzo turned all the information he received in this manner to the advantage of Pius VII., and he was in the following year arrested at Florence, and confined for some time in the island of Corsica. In 1815 he was created

cardinal, and in 1830 vice-chancellor of the church. He died in 1833. (Biog. Univ. Suppl.)

ARFE, (Juan de,) was the grandson of Henrique, and son of Antonio de Arfe, both celebrated carvers and workers in metal, the elder of whom was a German by birth, and supposed to have been brought from Flanders to Spain by Philip I. Antonio is said to have been the first who adopted columns and other ornaments derived from Italian architecture, in custodias, reliquaries, &c. Juan, who was born at Leon in 1535, distinguished himself not only by his perform ances as an artist, but by his mathematical knowledge, by his studies and his writings. Among these last, the most remarkable is his Varia Commensuracion (the first portion was printed at Seville in 1585), wherein he treats of sculpture and architecture, also of geometry and anatomy, giving his precepts in octave stanzas, accompanied by a prose explanation and commentary. The wood-cuts were also executed by himself. It happened by singular misfortune that the whole of the first impression of the work was destroyed by fire, and he was obliged to re-write it. In the preface to it he promised to compose a treatise on Practical Perspective, which, however, he does not appear ever to have done. In his own profession he executed many productions, of which only the more celebrated can now be specified; among others, the custodia of the cathedral of Avila, and that of the cathedral of Seville; both of which are represented in his Varia Commensuracion. The first of these was finished by him in 1570, and consists of three orders, Ionic, Corinthian, and Composite; the other, which occupied him six years, is circular in plan, and consists of four orders, viz. Ionic, Corinthian, and two Composite ones, with a variety of statues and bas-reliefs. For the Escurial he executed sixty-four metal busts. The last work attributed to him is the custodia of the church of St. Martin at Madrid, the contract for which was made in 1600, and it is supposed that he died shortly after completing it.

ARFE, (Juan de,) born at Seville in 1603. He commenced the study of his art in that city, and afterwards went to Italy to perfect himself. On his return to his native country he executed, amongst other great works, statues in marble of the evangelists and doctors, twenty feet high, in the chapel of the Communion of Seville. (Biog. Univ.)

ARFWIDSSON, a modern Swedish engraver of portraits. (Heinecken, Dict. des Artistes.)

ARGAIZ, (Gregorio de,) a monk of St. Benedict in the seventeenth century; published in 1667 an Ecclesiastical History of Spain, which he pretended to be, in substance, founded on a work of St. Gregory, bishop of Grenada. The imposture was detected by Garcia de Molina.

An

ARGALL, (John,) was born in London, but in what year is uncertain. thony Wood, who collected nearly all that is known of him, informs us that he was the third son of Thomas Argall, by Margaret, daughter of John Talkarne of Cornwall; and that late in the reign of Mary, he became a student of Christchurch, Oxford. He took his degree of M.A. in 1565-6, being the senior of the act celebrated on the 18th February. (Ath. Oxon. by Bliss, i. 760.) In September of the same year, a Latin and an English play were performed before queen Elizabeth, in Christ-church hall, the former called Progne, by Dr. James Calfhill, and the latter, entitled Palamon and Arcyte, by the celebrated Richard Edwards, (Collier's Hist. of Dram. Poetr. and the Stage, i. 191.) In one of these John Argall performed, and Wood states, that he was 66 a great actor;" but whether in Latin or English, or in both, does not appear. He night be the unnamed performer to whom queen Elizabeth presented eight guineas, in token of the satisfaction he had given her on that occasion; but had such been the case, he would probably have obtained greater preferment than when, after studying "the supreme faculty," he took orders, and "became parson of a market-town in Suffolk, called Halesworth," where he lived long, and was buried obscurely. He died suddenly during a feast at Cheston, a mile distant from Halesworth, and his interment took place on the 8th of October, 1606. Argall, in his Introductio ad Artem Dialecticam, Lond. 1605, 8vo, (which Anthony Wood quaintly calls

66

very facete and pleasant,") claims to have been intimate in early life with Dr. Bilson, subsequently bishop of Winchester; Dr. Heton, bishop of Ely; Dr. Robinson, bishop of Carlisle; and Dr. Matthew, first bishop of Durham, and finally, archbishop of York. If they attempted anything in Argall's favour, they attempted it ineffectually; for as he himself said, the year before his death, he was worthy and poor old man, still detained

an un

in the chains of poverty for his great and innumerable sins, that he might repent with the prodigal son, and at length, by God's favour, obtain salvation." Besides the Introductio ad Artem Dialecticam, from which the above quotation is made, John Argall wrote and printed a treatise, De Vera Penitentia, Lond. 1604, 8vo; and Dr. Bliss has pointed out a MS. in Bibl. Reg. A. xii. entitled, Johannis Argalli Epistola Monitoria ad R. Jacobum, cum in Regem Angliæ inauguratus

est.

ARGALL, (Richard,) was a sacred poet of some merit, but not of much celebrity; and whether any and what relation to the preceding, is uncertain, no particulars of his life or family being known. Three of his works were published in the same year, viz. The Song of Songs, which was Solomon's, metaphrased in English heroicks by way of Dialogue, Lond. 1621, 4to; The Bride's Ornament, poetical essays upon a divine subject, Lond. 1621, 4to; and A Funeral Elegy, consecrated to the memory of his everhonoured lord, King, late bishop of London, 1621. He was patronized by bishop John King, and dedicated the first of the preceding works to his son Henry, then archdeacon of Colchester, and subsequently bishop of Chichester. Anthony Wood (Ath. Oxon. by Bliss, i. 761) notices two other intended publications by Richard Argall, and doubts whether they were ever printed, owing to the disappointment of the author at the death of his patron: the one was called Meditations of Knowledge, Zeal, Temperance, Bounty, and Joy; and the other, Meditations of Prudence, Obedience, Meekness, God's Word and Prayer. Wood does not add where he had seen the MSS. of these productions. He had not been able to ascertain to what college in Oxford Richard Argall belonged, but merely states, that he "spent some time in study" there.

ARGAND, (Aimé,) inventor of the lamp known by his name, was a Genevese. He made his first lamp in England about 1782. He found it expedient to share the honour and profits of his invention with M. Lange, who also claimed the discovery, in whose name, jointly with his own, French letters patent were obtained in 1787. The use of the new lamp, with its perfect combustion of the oil and steady light, produced by the internal current of air and the glass chimney, soon became general; but the revolutionary abolition of all exclusive privi

leges deprived the patentees of their expected profits. Argand came to England, and his death in 1803 is said to have been accelerated by his disappointments. (Biog. Univ.)

ARGELLATI, (Philip,) an Italian printer, and one of the most learned and laborious authors of his time, was born at Bologna in 1685. His most important undertaking was the printing of the great collection of ancient historians, known as the Scriptores Rerum Italicarum. Muratori, who formed the design of this work, was almost on the point of abandoning it, from the impossibility of getting it printed in Italy, where the art of typography had been allowed to fall into great neglect. A society, called the Palatine, was however formed, chiefly owing to the exertions of the count Charles Archinto, to defray the expenses of publication, and Argellati established a magnificent printing-house at Milan, from which this work was the first to issue. His other productions were the works of Sigonius, in 6 vols, folio, which appeared in 1738; Le Opere inedite di Ludovico Castelvetro, 1727; De Antiquis Mediolani Edificiis, 1736; &c. Argellati also wrote and published, Bibliotheca Scriptorum Mediolanensium, 1745; Biblioteca de' Volgarizzatori Italiani, 1767; besides many memoirs in different collections. He died in 1755. (Biog. Univ. Mazuchelli.)

ARGELLATI, (Francesco,) son of the preceding, born in 1712, was well acquainted with ancient and modern literature, which he had ample opportunities of cultivating in his father's house, with whom he lived till his death in 1754. He left some unpublished works, in jurisprudence, philosophy, and general literature. (Biog. Univ. Mazuchelli.)

ARGENS, (Jean Baptiste de Boyer, marquis d',) was born in 1704, at Aix in Provence, and entered the French army at an early age; he was, however, obliged to leave it, and was sent to Constantinople with the French ambassador. On returning to France, his family wished him to study for the bar, a profession for which his profligate habits particularly unfitted him; and he again entered the army, but a fall from his horse at the siege of Philipsburg disqualified him for a military life. Disinherited by his father, he was obliged to take to his pen, as a means of subsistence, and went to reside in Holland, where he published his Lettres Juives, a work which recommended him to the notice of Frederick II. at that time prince royal of Prussia. On his accession

I