induced, by a perusal of the Gospels in his native language, to secede from the Roman Church. Whatever may have been their origin, they have maintained their faith, notwithstanding severe persecutions, even to the present day; and it is admitted, by Roman Catholic writers of the middle ages, that they were a simple innocent people, against whom nothing that orthodox Protestants call heretical could be alleged, although it seems doubtful whether they derived their orders according to the regular channel of episcopal succession.1 Other sectaries appeared during the 12th century in Italy, Switzerland, and more especially the south of France. These, under various names, of which the most noted are the Cathari and Albigenses, held opinions of a questionable character, as partaking of gnosticism and manicheism, and said to be derived from the East, from a scct called the Paulicians. Thirty persons of this description were convicted in Henry II.'s reign of denying the sacraments, and perished miserably of cold at Oxford. In the next century Innocent III. proclaimed a crusade against the Albigenses of Languedoc, which was headed by the celebrated Simon Count de Montford. The fury of the persecutors in this sanguinary work went beyond even the worst atrocities of the pagan emperors of Rome, and would be satisfied with nothing less than the extermination of these unfortunate religionists. In spite of the inquisitors, however, new sectaries arose in different parts of Europe, whose opinions and practice were open to still graver objection, but whose existence testified, notwithstanding their errors, the commencement of an era of greater light, because of greater freedom. The midnight darkness of the darkest ages had passed away, even as far back as the middle of the 12th century; and the Spirit of God had begun to move upon

'Le Bas's Life of Wiclif, pp. 27, 28.

Mosheim, vol. ii. pp. 466, 467. 582.; Hallam, vol. iii. pp. 464–471.

the chaos, and to stir up in men's minds a longing after light and knowledge.

From this time the number of professed students of the Scriptures became much greater, although their expositions of the Holy Volume were not such as to assist the humble searcher after truth. Of the two schools of theologians which now arose, one professed to follow merely the letter of Holy Scripture and the interpretation of the Fathers; the other, after the example of Lanfranc and Anselm, resorted to reason and philosophy in solving theological difficulties. This was the origin of the scholastic divines, whose system prevailed from this period till the Reformation; of whom the most famous were: Peter Lombard, sometimes called the Master of the Sentences; Peter Abelard; Hales, the Irrefragable Doctor; Duns Scotus; and Thomas Aquinas.1 Nor was the study of the Sacred Writings altogether confined to the schools; inasmuch as we find Innocent III. complaining of laymen and women making use of translations of the Scriptures; and in 1229, the persecuting council of Toulouse thought it necessary to prohibit the laity from possessing the Scriptures at all.2

It does not appear that the prohibition contained in this canon was enforced in England; but from the circumstance, that Romish writers have alleged that Wycliffe introduced a novelty, when he laid open the Gospel to the laity3, it may be inferred, that this privilege was not enjoyed by them in the 13th century. The mass of the lowest class of the people being not yet raised from the condition of servitude, was still in a hopeless state of ignorance and wretchedness. Nevertheless, the university of Oxford was even then attended by a numerous body of students; and both that university and the sister institution of Cambridge began, in

1 Mosheim, vol. ii. pp. 451-454. Knighton, cited by Le Bas, p. 169.

2 Hallam, vol. iii. pp. 472-474.

the 14th century, to hold out more encouragements for study, by the increase of the number of their foundations. Hitherto all works of literature had been composed in the Latin language; but at the end of the 13th century, the vernacular tongue of England was, for the first time, employed in verse in the composition of metrical chronicles.

The next century witnessed the publication, in English, of an exposition of the Psalter by Hampole, an Eremite; and Piers Plowman's Vision, a severe satire upon the clergy; which was followed afterwards by the poems of Chaucer.

This intellectual revival, though not extensive or deeply felt, was yet sufficient to enable men to see more clearly the abuses of the existing system of the Church. Hence in the end it materially assisted in bringing about a great change in the spiritual condition of the people; so that those who were able to read, in their native tongue, such works as those which have been just mentioned, were in some degree prepared to profit by the translation of the Bible by Wycliffe.

Although this great Reformer was the first, in England, who ventured openly to controvert the doctrinal errors which prevailed in the 14th century, there had not been wanting previously, among the leaders of the English Church, persons who showed a degree of piety, learning, and right judgment, which seemed to qualify them for the work of reformation.

The mild and devout Bradwardine, who, acting as chaplain to Edward III. in his French campaigns, had been able to mitigate, by the precepts of the Gospel, the atrocities of war, had in 1349, for a few weeks, held the office of archbishop of Canterbury. Of such a man, in such a position, much might have been expected; but he was perhaps too

Hallam, vol. iii. pp. 526, 527. 571–573. 596.; Mosheim, vol. ii. p. 648.

meek in spirit for the stern career of a reformer of a corrupt Church, and he was too soon taken off to have time to originate any change.

Another archbishop of that time, Fitzralph of Armagh, openly arraigned, before the Pope in person, the abuses of the mendicant system and the evil practices of the friars; and he is said to have shown a laudable zeal for the diffusion of Scriptural knowledge among his people, by translating the Bible into the Irish tongue.1

The labours of Fitzralph, however, have been almost forgotten, in comparison with the more lasting work of John Wycliffe, the pioneer, if not the author, of the English Reformation.

This extraordinary man is said to have been born in the village of the same name, near Richmond in Yorkshire, about the year 1324. At Oxford he was first admitted a member of Queen's College, then lately founded by Philippa, the consort of Edward III., and afterwards removed to Merton, a society in high repute on account of the number of eminent men whom it had produced. Wycliffe was a most diligent and successful student of the scholastic philosophy, a proficiency in which was at that time altogether necessary for any one who wished to establish a reputation for theological learning; and his success in this department obtained for him the highest praise from the cotemporary historian, Knighton, a bitter enemy of his person and doctrines. He was also a student of the canon and civil law, as well as of the laws of his own country, and so devoted himself to the reading of the Holy Scriptures, as to acquire the honourable title of the Evangelic Doctor. Of the ancient writers in divinity those whom he chiefly followed were the four Latin Fathers, Augustine, Jerome, Ambrose, and Gre

Le Bas, p. 62-66.; Collier, vol. iii. p. 117.

gory; while of the moderns, Grosstête and Fitzralph, especially the former, were the authors who had the greatest influence in the formation of his opinions.1

His first work is said to have been a tract "On the last Age of the Church," published in 1356, chiefly remarkable for its severe attack upon the simony and covetousness of the clergy. About the year 1360 he commenced that fierce warfare against the mendicant orders from which he never desisted through life. His opinions on this subject may be collected from a work published some years afterwards, in which he arranged his charges against the friars under fifty heads. Of these, it will be sufficient to mention the first, which accuses them of holding that monstrous notion of development by which modern Roman Catholic controversialists have attempted to support their system against the charge of departure from Scripture and primitive antiquity. "Friars say that their religion, founded by sinful men, is more perfect than that religion, or order, which Christ himself made, who is both God and man." It is not very surprising that those who maintained such doctrine, or anything like it, should be regarded as the teachers of every kind of falsehood.2

In 1361, we find Wycliffe presented to the living of Fillingham, in the diocese of Lincoln, which he afterwards exchanged for another near Oxford: and in the same year he was made warden of Baliol College. This office he resigned, four years afterwards, for the headship of Canterbury Hall in the same university, a new foundation of archbishop Islep. From this position he was summarily ejected by Islep's successor, Langham, on the pretence that the appointment of a secular priest to the wardenship was contrary to the charter of foundation. On Wycliffe's refusal to obey the new warden, the archbishop sequestered the revenues of

Le Bas, pp. 74--76.

2 Le Bas, pp. 78. 83. 90.