birds are often over-fed in summer and starved in winter, and thus few eggs are produced, and what are produced from starved birds contain less nitrogen. Food should be changed. Buckwheat stimulates the production of eggs, and is much used in France. If more careful attention were given to poultry farming we should secure the large profit which we now pay to our French neighbours for this delicious and valuable article of food.

As a "hobby" poultry-keeping is both interesting and profitable, and as an investment it ought to be highly remunerative if conducted on scientific principles. It is a standing rebuke to our intelligence and our enterprise that millions of eggs are annually imported into England from the Continent of Europe.

C. F. Dowsett.

CHAPTER LXIII.

FRONTAGES TO OCEANS AND RIVERS.

BY CHARLES E. CURTIS, F.S.I., F.S.S.,

Professor of Forest Economy, Field Engineering, and General Estate Management at the College of Agriculture, Downton, Salisbury; Member of the American Academy of Political and Social Science; Consulting Forester to the Right Honourable Lord O'Neill, Shanes Castle, Antrim, Ireland; Author of "Estate Management," 3rd edition (Field Office), "Practical Forestry" (Office of Land Agents' Record), "Principles of Forestry" (R.A. Society's Journal), "Valuation of Property (Corporeal and Incorporeal)," etc.

A VOLUME could be written upon the subject of this chapter, but the object is rather to show how frontages to seas and rivers may enhance the value of land than to set out in full detail all the rights and privileges of riparian and coast owners. The subject is full of intense interest to both the owners of such land and the frequenters of our coast-line. At the present time, when the pressure of mental and bodily labour leads all classes who can afford it to spend a few weeks each year on the coast or river banks, there is not unlikely to occur a friction between the owners and the public. The former, having rights, become more exacting as the public pressure in the form of trespass increases; and the determination to uphold public privileges as against the claims of owners has now become the rule rather than the exception. What private persons could not do, combination effects. All this tends to bring into importance the subject of sea and river

frontages, which has been allowed to slumber more or less for many generations. The youths of the present day push their boats, canoes, and sailing crafts into the broads, estuaries, rivers, and private waters, and rouse the ire of the owner of the soil, who is apt to forget the existence of this public pressure which is working silently but surely in restricting ancient individual rights.

In the case of Great Britain and Ireland there is naturally a great proportion of land bordering on the coast-line, so that the interests are somewhat widespread. A sea boundary naturally carries with it many privileges and advantages, though it is possible, of course, that disadvantages may sometimes attach. The balance is undoubtedly in favour of a sea frontage, whether we look upon it from a social or an economic aspect. With such an uncertain boundary the question. naturally arises, What is the limit? Prima facie the foreshore is the property of the Crown-the term "foreshore" applies to the shore between high and low water, and an owner abutting upon it must show title before he can exercise the rights of ownership upon it. "High water," however, is no definite term, as it varies greatly. Twice a year, for example, at the periods of the equinox-March and September-the tides are abnormally high, and in many cases the sea may encroach over large areas; the spring tides, which occur twice every month, often cover a large area; and the ordinary tides, which occur twice daily, may be considered normal. It has been held that the owner of the adjoining land may claim to the line of ordinary high water. This renders it possible for every owner of land to determine his own boundary, subject, of course, to infractions of this normal condition. These we find in the gradual encroachment of the sea, exemplified by the submerged forests, caused by subsi

dence of the land, and raised beaches which show elevation of the land; landslips, too, often change the outline of the coast. But these changes, though recent

to the geologist, are remote to the present generation, and only occasionally affect the question of ownership. Instances of raised beaches are found on the coasts of Cornwall, Devonshire, Somersetshire, and Northumberland, and buried forests are found in Devonshire, Somersetshire, and other parts of the coast. Landslips occur mostly where the greensand forms the boundary line, and this is manifest upon the north coast of Ireland. Between Larne and Glenarm the road hugs the coast, and upon this men have constantly to be employed in clearing away the obstructions caused by the constant slipping of the gault clay.

At the mouths of rivers, too, a change of coast-line constantly occurs through silting up, and in some parts of the coast, notably the mouth of the Humber, this is artificially carried out by what is known as warping, which will be presently referred to as one of the advantages of a coast-line boundary.

For the purposes of this chapter, however, our coastline may be looked upon as determined by the line of seaweed which is thrown up by the ordinary high tide; this line, in point of fact, being a contour line.

Now, what privileges and rights attach to this peculiar frontage? They may be divided into two classes, the social or personal, and the economic. The first appeals to the enjoyment arising from fishing, fowling, bathing, boating, yachting, and scenery, and to that charm which cannot be conveyed in words. The latter appeals to the power of warping, sea-weed deposits, saltings, carriage of material and produce, uniform and constant wind-power, and to the possibility of the

creation of a seaside resort with building privileges and advantages.

The combination of these two classes must bring about an increased demand, and thereby be the means of increasing the capital value of the land. It may, in fact, be looked upon as an "unearned increment"; but

may

perhaps the term "inherent capability of the soil more correctly attach to it. This inherent capability may be largely developed by artificial means. The value attaching, nevertheless, will be greatly influenced by local circumstances that is, by site and aspect, natural shelter, safe and deep waters for mooring, good anchoring bottom, a rock bottom for fishing, sands for bathing, presence of sea-weed for manure, cover for wild fowl, adaptation to oyster cultivation, beauty of coast-line, and so forth. It is clear that all these advantages are not likely to be found at one and the same place, and that in many instances they will be counterbalanced by disadvantages; but under any circumstance, the advantages may be enhanced and the disadvantages minimised by wise and judicious action on the part of the owner.

In some places upon the coast will be found large areas of arid sands, yielding nothing to the landowner, and to reclaim these is a matter of great expense and doubtful profit. Nevertheless, there are means of bringing these sands into cultivation, which it may be well to draw attention to. Sometimes when the coast is open to strong winds, and the sand is fine, the sands shift and move, in the form of dunes, landwards. Large areas have been covered in this way; the inhabitants have had to retreat, and much damage has been done. The greatest difficulty has been experienced, and an enormous outlay incurred in checking this encroachment of sand; but success has attended the efforts. Turn, for