In 564, a Norwegian pirate, called Naddodd, was thrown by a storm on an island, hitherto unknown to his countrymen, and to which he gave the name of Schnee, or Snowland. Naddodd did not long remain there himself, but, in consequence of his report, a Swede, named Gardar Swaffarson, undertook an expedition to Snowland, and, having sailed quite round it, gave it the name of Gardanholm, or Gardar's Island. After him, one Flocke, who had gained great reputation as a voyager, went thither, and spent the winter in the island, which, on account of the fields of ice that filled all the bays and creeks, he termed Iceland, a name that it has borne ever since. The great wealth accumulated by the bold Nordmans, as these invaders were called, enabled them to introduce many changes into the manners, customs, laws, and government of the countries which they visited. In England, the Danes fully established their power; and in Ireland, they erected three kingdoms. These enterprising adventurers also colonized the Orkney and the Shetland islands, the Hebrides, and the Isle of Man.

Meanwhile, Alfred, who had been obliged to seek a retreat from the conquerors, collected a force, and came suddenly upon the main body of his enemies, whom he defeated, and recovered his throne, which he established on a permanent basis. To secure his kingdom from fresh irruptions, Alfred exerted himself effectually in the construction of a navy; and thus laid the foundation of that superiority on the ocean which this country has maintained above nine hundred years.

By carefully examining the Danish vessels, his penetrating genius was enabled to make many important improvements in naval architecture. The ships used in the Baltic were rude and plain: high before and behind, and so formed as to go with either end forward, the rowers shifting their seats as occasion required. But those planned by Alfred were in the form of galleys, carried sixty oars, and greatly exceeded those of the Danes in size and swiftness; besides which, being built considerably higher than theirs, the men had a manifest advantage, in an engagement, over their antagonists.

The care of Alfred, however, was not confined to his vessels of war: and in providing a fleet for the defence of his kingdom, he also caused similar improvements to be applied to the construction of ships employed for commerce. But what is most extraordinary, this illustrious monarch, even bent his thoughts to the promotion of navigation, and the discovery of remote countries. For this purpose he drew to his court such per

sons as by their travels were qualified to give him information, and assist him in his views. Among others, there was a Dane, named Orther, who had visited many distant regions, not only in the north, but in the south of Europe and Asia. Alfred also entertained one Wulfstan, a Jutlander, who gave him an account of his travels into Russia. These memorials Alfred incorporated with his translation of the geography of Paul Orosius, a learned ecclesiastic of the fifth century.

This work of Alfred, which is rather an original than a version, has descended to us in a complete state, and been translated from the original into English by Mr. Daines Barrington.

Of the voyage to India, said to have been executed by Orther at the command of Alfred, it is needless to take any notice, since the story is too romantic to merit attention, especially as the route alleged to have been pursued never had existence. Neither is it worth while to waste remarks upon the pretended discovery of America in the 12th century by Madoc, Prince of Wales, who is stated to have established a colony of his countrymen on that continent where he and his brother died. This legend has found its way into several grave histories, and been made the subject of an epic poem by the present laureate, in whose work the curious reader, if he is not satisfied with the truth of the story, may find amusement in the richness of the imagery, and the elegance of the versification.

We now hasten to the grand epoch of the history of navigation, from whence properly the science may be said to acquire the principle of certainty.

Hitherto the voyages of the boldest and most skilful adventurers were conducted with caution, as near the shore as consisted with the safety of the ship and the crew. When the advantages of sidereal observation in directing the course became known, and for which the Greeks were indebted to the Phenicians, mariners ventured to take a wider range from the shore, and to extend their voyages to greater distances. At what precise time this application of astronomy to the art of sailing began, cannot be determined; but that it was in a very early age, is clear from Homer's description of the voyage of Ulysses:

"Placed at the helm, he sat, and mark'd the skies,
Nor closed in sleep his ever watchful eyes."
There view'd the Pleiads and the Northern Team,
And great Orion's more refulgent beam;
To which, around the axle of the sky,
The Bear revolving, points his golden eye,
Who shines exalted on th' ethereal plain,
Nor bathes his blazing forehead in the main."

Important as this guide was to those who traversed narrow seas, it could not encou

rage men to explore the illimitable ocean. At length, the directive properties of the loadstone were discovered, and a new era in science commenced. To whom the world is indebted for the invention of the compass, cannot be determined. The French claim the honour, on the authority of an old provencal poet in the twelfth century, who, in some obscure verses, notices the powers of a black stone, that attracts iron, and points it in the direction of the star that never moves. No reliance, however, is to be placed upon such evidence, even though, for its support, the flower de luce, which is the old armorial bearing of the French monarchy, continue to be the distinctive mark of the north point of the compass. The general voice now gives the credit of discovering the practical use of the magnet in navigation, to the Italians; but here again are conflicting claims to be adjusted; one party ascribing the invention to Flavio Gioia, a Neapolitan, in 1302; while others, on better grounds, defend the right of Marco Polo, a Venetian, who lived about half a century before him. Marco is known to have been a great navigator, and to have traded largely with India, and even China.

This fact raises another question, as to whether the mariner's compass be of Oriental or European origin. It cannot be doubted that the polarity of the loadstone was known to the Chinese, when the Dutch and English visited that country at the end of the sixteenth century; and according to the Jesuits, who formed a missionary establishment there, the Chinese made use of the magnetized needle for nautical purposes as early as the year 225 of the christian era; besides which, they are said, on the same authority, to have been acquainted with the variation of the compass. But there is this difference between the compass of Europe and that of China. In Europe it has been thought the needle has its direction to the north pole; but in China the south alone is considered as containing the attractive power. The name of the Chinese compass is ting-nan-ching, or the southern needle; and a distinguishing mark is set on that point, as in the European compass upon the north.

Now, the question is, whether the Chinese derived this knowledge of the use of the magnet from an intercourse with foreign navigators, or travellers borrowed it from them. That Marco Polo did visit China in the 13th century, cannot be doubted; and that some learned Arabians did so about the same period, is evident from their journal published by Re

naudot. If, therefore, any reliance is to be placed upon what they relate, the claim of the Chinese to this important invention is stronger than that of the Italians or any other nation.

When the discovery became known in Europe, the results were soon perceived in the improvement of science, and the extension of commerce. In 1360 an English friar and astronomer, called, from his native place, Nicholas of Lynn made a voyage to the arctic ocean, in order to prove the virtues of the magnetic influence for nautical purposes. But it was the Portuguese nation who took the lead in the prosecution of maritime discovery, after receiving the aid of this powerful instrument. In 1419 they colonized Madeira, which acquisition was soon followed by that of the Cape de Verd islands, and the formation of settlements on the African continent. In 1486 Bartholomew Diaz sailed from Lisbon with three ships, and advanced to twenty-four degrees south latitude, which was one hundred and twenty leagues beyond the track of former navigators, and then, stretching out to sea, never touched upon the coast again, till he was forty leagues eastward of the Cape which he had passed without seeing it in his passage. He then proceeded to the river Del Infante above six degrees to the eastward of Agulhas, and near one degree beyond the Grand Cape, which on his return he styled the Cabo Tormentoro, from the tremendous storms he had encountered in his circumnavigating course. Upon his arrival in Portugal, and making his report to king John the Second, that sagacious monarch saw at once the prospect of an opening to India, in anticipation of which he changed the name of the extremity discovered by Diaz, to that of the Cape of Good Hope.

Ten years, however, were suffered to elapse before the design was carried into effect by Vasco de Gama, who sailed from Lisbon, July 18, 1497, accompanied to a certain latitude by Diaz, and, after visiting Calicut, returned home, where, in 1499 he was joyfully welcomed by his sovereign, who loaded him with honours.

Another navigator of extraordinary merit employed in the Portuguese service at that period, was Martin Behem, a native of Nuremberg. His early studies having been directed to the mathematics, as he advanced in life he conceived the idea of a western continent, and was anxious to make the discovery. Animated by this desire, he applied to John the Second of Portugal, who became his patron, and in 1460, Behem landed at Fagal, on which he

planted a colony of Flemings. In 1484 the king gave him some ships, with which he discovered Brazil, from whence he sailed as far as the straits of Magellan, which fact cannot be disputed, since the proofs are upon record, that he met in his voyage along that coast with savage tribes of gigantic stature, whom he called Patagonians, from the extremities of their bodies being covered with a skin more like that of the paws of the bear, than human hands and feet. The evidences of these discoveries are still existing among the archives of Nuremberg, where also is preserved a terrestrial globe constructed by Behem, and on which are delineated the coasts of South America, which he discovered. This globe was made in the same year that Columbus sailed on his expedition; therefore it is impossible that Behem could have received any intelligence from him; besides which, the discoveries of that great man did not extend to the southern continent.

The celebrated astronomer Ricciolus says in his Geographia Reformata, "Christopher Columbus never thought of an expedition to the West Indies, until his arrival at Madeira, where, amusing himself in delineating charts, he obtained information from Martin Behem, or, according as the Spanish authors assert, from Sanchez Hueloa, a pilot, who had by chance fallen in with the island of Dominica." Behem died at Lisbon in 1506, thirteen years before Magellan set out on his expedition, whose enterprise arose out of the following circumstance.

Magellan being in the royal apartment at Lisbon, saw there a chart of the coast of of America, drawn by Behem, on which he conceived the idea of tracing the same course. Jerome Benson, who wrote a description of America in 1550, mentions this chart, a copy of which Behem himself sent to Nuremberg, where it is still to be seen in the city library.

Christopher Columbus being a native of the maritime state of Genoa, could not but feel a strong interest in the discoveries of the Portuguese, and a desire to partake in this new career of glory. He imagined that the eastern limits of India were not far distant from the western shores of Spain; and this idea prompted him to undertake a voyage in that direction. For a considerable time his plan was treated with contempt by different sovereigns to whom it was submitted. At length Columbus found a patron in Ferdinand, king of Spain; and on the 3d of August, 1492, he sailed from Palos, in Andalusia, with three small vessels, and about one hundred men. On the 11th, they arrived at the Canaries, and remained there

till the 6th of September, when they proceeded on their voyage, but had scarcely got out of sight of land, when the spirit of mutiny arose, which required all the fortitude of the commander to prevent from destroying the enterprise. On the 11th of October, Columbus himself first descried a light like that of a candle, and at break of day he had the satisfaction of landing in a bay, where he kissed the ground, and, on standing, proclaimed the name of the place San Salvador, one of the Lucayos islands. This discovery was followed by several others, and, on the 3d of August, 1493, the admiral entered the port from whence he had set out seven months before.

Columbus made two more voyages to the new world; but, though highly honoured after his first success, he was subsequently treated with ingratitude by the Spanish government, and even robbed of the credit due to his memory, by Americus Vespucius, a Florentine, who, though he only followed Columbus on the same course, yet had his own name given to the discoveries of his precursor.

Notwithstanding these additions to the stock of geographical knowledge, a great part of the habitable world remained to be explored. The limits of Asia on the east, and America on the west; the extent of land in the southern hemisphere; and even the spherical figure of the earth, were as yet conjectural speculations, resting upon analogy and hypothesis. Hence arose the expeditions, made at different periods, for the circumnavigation of the globe.

Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese, was the first who made this attempt. He sailed from Seville, in Spain, on the 10th of August, 1519, and, in November following, he passed through the strait which, in consequence, bears his name; though here, as in the case of Americus Vespucius, he obtained an honour, which in right belonged to another. This charnel brought Magellan into the South Sea, which, on ac. count of its tranquil state, was denominated the Pacific Ocean. Magellan proceeded, and in March, 1521, discovered the Ladrone Islands, so called from the thievish character of the inhabitants; a character which their descendants have retained to this day. Next our adventurer discovered the Philippines, where he perished in a skirmish with the natives. After this, the command devolved upon Sebastian del Cano, who passed Borneo to the Moluccas, from thence to Sumatra, and returned by the Cape of Good Hope to Seville, where he arrived in 1522.

The next circumnavigator was Sir Francis

Drake, a native of Devonshire, who sailed from Plymouth on the 13th of December, 1577; crossed the equinoctial line on the 13th of March, 1578; passed through the Magellanic Straits on the 25th of September.

On the 25th of November he arrived at Macao, thence he coasted along Chili and Peru, to the height of 48 degrees north latitude, where he landed, and called the land New Albion, but other voyagers gave it the name of California.

This bold navigator having twice doubled the line, returned southward, and, after touching at the Moluccas, he proceeded to the Celebes, and from thence to Java; on leaving which island, he steered for Europe by the Cape of Good Hope; and, on the third of November, 1580, landed at Plymouth. Queen Elizabeth ordered the Pelican, which had performed this voyage round the world, to be brought up to Deptford, where her Majesty went board, and conferred the honour of knighthood on the great commander, who had carried the glory of her name to the remotest regions of the earth.

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The example of Drake was followed by Sir Thomas Cavendish, who sailed from Plymouth with three ships, furnished at his own charge, on the 21st of July, old style, 1586. On the 3d of January, 1587, he passed the Strait of Magellan, and proceeded from thence along the coast as far as California, where he captured a Spanish galleon of seven hundred tons, laden with gold, silver, and various other riches, with which he returned to England, by the Cape of Good Hope, and arrived at Plymouth on the ninth of September, 1588.

Three years afterwards, Cavendish made another voyage, with five vessels; but this enterprise proved very unfortunate: the squadron separated, the commander died, and the rest of the ships returned, without being able to penetrate into the Pacific, owing to the tremendous storms which they encountered off Cape Horn.

Oliver du Nout, a native of Utrecht, who departed from Rotterdam the second of July, 1598, on a similar object, was more fortunate but the voyage was not pro ductive of any important discoveries; and on the 26th of August, 1601, the admiral entered the port he had left, having sailed round the globe in little less than three years.

About the same time, two other Dutchmen, named Simon Cordes, and Sebald de West, sailed on a voyage of discovery, but the enterprise proved very disastrous to the adventurers, though it was attended with beneficial consequences to their nation.

The ships having been separated in a stormf, one of them, piloted by William Adams, made for the coast of Japan, where the crew were detained prisoners, till their fate should be determined by the emperor. Adams was sent to the court, where he was treated with distinction, and procured the release of his companions, but was never suffered himself to quit the country. In 1611 his friends in England received a letter from him, stating that he was in health, and in the enjoyment of every pleasure, except the liberty of returning to his own country. He died at Eaindo, in Japan, about the year 1620. This voyage, so unfortunate to individuals, laid the foundation of the valuable commerce which the Dutch were permitted exclusively to carry on with the Japanese, upon the ruin of the Portuguese trade in those seas.

George Spilberg, a Fleming, sailed from the Texel on the 6th of August, 1614, and, after circumnavigating the globe, in a voyage of three years and four months, returned in safety to Zealand.

At the same time, two Dutch navigators, James Le Maire and William Schouten, entered into partnership for prosecuting a voyage of discovery in the southern hemisphere. They accordingly sailed from the Texel on the 14th of June, 1614, and, on the 24th of January, 1616, passed through a strait, to which, by common consent, they gave the name of Le Maire, and then proceeded round Cape Horn into the Pacific Ocean. After exploring the coast of Chili, and discovering several islands, the adventurers sailed for Batavia, where their vessels were seized, and the commanders imprisoned by the president of the Dutch company of the Indies, under the fallacious pretext that they sailed without a license. Le Maire and Schouten were put on board the squadron of Spilberg; but on the voyage the former died, near the isle of Marice, January 22, 1617. Shouten lived to revisit his native land, but whether he received any compensation for the wrongs he had sustained does not appear.

The troubled state of England in the reign of Charles the First, prevented that unfortunate monarch from prosecuting the designs he had formed, of extending commerce and improving nautical science. His sons, however, who had resided in Holland, turned their attention to these great objects after the restoration; and would, doubtless, have carried them fully into execution, had the times proved favourable to such patriotic undertakings.

In 1679, Charles the Second sent Sir John Narborough to explore the Magellanic

Straits, for the purpose of forming an establishment on the adjacent coasts; and opening a friendly correspondence with the native Indians. All the result of this voyage was, a more accurate acquaintance with the country than had been attained by former navigators. So much expectation, however, had been excited by the enterprise, that when intelligence reached court of the arrival of Narborough in the Downs, the king went down to meet him at Gravesend.

At the close of the same century, William Dampier circumnavigated the globe, in four voyages; one in 1684, another in 1688, a third in 1699, and the last in 1708.

In 1739, Commodore Anson was sent on an expedition against the Spanish settlements on the south-west coast of America. After suffering many hardships, and losing some of his ships, this great commander doubled Cape Horn, crossed the Pacific, and returned by the Cape of Good Hope in 1744.

The next English circumnavigator was the honourable John Byron, who had commenced his naval career under Anson; but his ship, the Wager, was lost on the Terra del Fuego. After living some time with the Indians, he made his way to Lima, from whence he obtained a passage to England.

George the Third, on his accession, directed his thoughts to the important object of nautical discovery in the south, being persuaded that there must be land in that immense region, correspondent with the continents of the north. In order, therefore, to determine this point, Mr. Byron, with the title of commodore, was appointed to command two ships, with which he sailed from the Downs, June the 21st, 1764. After forming an intercourse with the Patagonians, a gigantic race on the coast of South America, Byron passed through the Straits of Magellan, crossed the South Sea, discovered five islands, to one of which he gave his own name, and on the 9th of May, 1766, returned to England.

Captain Carteret and Wallis were next employed to traverse the same ocean, where they separated in tempestuous wea ther; but each commander continued to prosecute the object of the enterprise with zeal, and both added to the stock of geographical knowledge; Wallis, by the discovery of the Friendly Islands, and Carteret by that of the Sandwich and Admiralty Islands. About the same time Bougainville, a French navigator, sailed from Nantz, and, after discovering the Southern Cy2D. SERIES, NO. 12.-VOL. I.

clades and the New Hebrides, returned to Europe in March 1769.

The illustrious Cook was the next who enlarged the field of science. His first voyage, in 1768, had two objects; one to convey the astronomers appointed to make their observations on the transit of Venus at Otaheite; the other, to explore the coasts of New Holland, and the different islands scattered over the Pacific Ocean. The success which attended this enterprise induced government to send out the great commander on a second expedition; and finally, on a third voyage; but after exploring the utmost boundaries of the Southern Sea, and thrice circumnavigating the globe, he was cut off by the savages of Owhyhee, one of the Sandwich islands, on the 14th of January 1779.

Here we shall close this Essay on the rise and progress of navigation; reserving what relates to the discovery of particular lands to a future disquisition on the history of geography.

CELESTIAL PHENOMENA.-DEC. 1831.

The Sun enters the tropical sign Capricorn on the 22nd, at 6 minutes past 1 in the afternoon, when the winter quarter commences his semi-diameter on the 1st is 16 minutes 15 seconds and 4 tenths; and on the 25th, 16 minutes 17 seconds and 7 tenths.

The moon is new on the 4th, at 48 minutes past 7 in the morning; enters her first quarter on the 12th, at 22 minutes past 11 in the morning; she is full on the 19th, at 10 minutes past 5 in the morning; and enters her last quarter on the 25th, at 10 minutes past 12 at night.

The following conjunctions of the moon and fixed stars are attended with occultations: 2 Ceti on the 15th, at 33 minutes 38 seconds past 7 in the morning; μ Ceti on the 16th, at 42 minutes 33 seconds past 2 in the morning; f Tauri on the same day, at 46 minutes 10 seconds past 9 in the evening, y Tauri on the 17th, at 8 minutes past 5 in the evening; a Tauri, or Aldebaran, on the same evening, at 20 minutes 54 seconds past 11; and Regulus on the 23rd, at 12 minutes 39 seconds past 7 in the morning. The moon passes near the Georgian on the morning of the 9th, and near Saturn on the 24th.

The planet Mercury arrives at his greatest elongation on the 25th. The beautiful planet Venus is a conspicuous object in the eastern hemisphere during the mornings; she passes near Virginis on the 11th, and 4% Libræ