in this branch of art; and her example, and the effect of it here, are deserving of attentive observation, and of close imitation.

This principle is obvious in all architectural compositions, as well as in those in music and eloquence; in the management of a dramatic representation, and in the arrangement of the parts of a dress. In gardening, too, it should always regulate the composition. In each of the arts, moreover, the general style of the composition should ever be throughout in accordance with, and should bear relation to the subject of it, and to the particular characters introduced.

VII. The maintenance of a complete and harmonious unity of object and purpose in the conduct of the representation, is a matter of essential importance in artistical composition of each kind, and contributes alike to the perspicuity of the design, and to its general vigour and effect. This rule is applicable alike to delineation and to composition; but it is more essential in the latter than in the former, as there are both more independent parts requiring to be united, and from their greater variety there is more danger of their being disunited and acting discordantly in composition than in delineation. As one principal figure should always stand out as the foremost, so one main design should ever be obvious, to which all subordinate purposes should contribute and lend their aid. If the attention of the mind is divided, the perception is confused, and the impression much weakened. Hence, the union together of the different parts of a composition is an essential principle to be kept in view. It is, indeed, alone by this means, that all the various figures and groups become amalgamated into one whole; that they are made in reality to constitute a composition, instead of remaining independent objects.

Unity of design in composition is analogous to unity of purpose in action, and is essential to give effect and vigour to the design or representation. If the current is diverted, it loses its strength, and the various streams which meander through the country have nothing of the force which they would possess when united into one vast torrent. So is it in artistical composition of each kind. In Michael Angelo's Last Judg

ment,' the result is much weakened by this want of unity of subject, which is indeed the great defect of the picture, although the unity of purpose is still preserved; and to the observance of this principle, Raphael's renowned cartoons owe much of their force and effect.

Although several distinct representations may be aimed at by the different groups in the picture, as is the case indeed in the cartoons; yet the effect, the general impression produced by the whole, should be one and the same. Here all the streams should meet, and should concentrate their forces. An epic poem may have many episodes; yet they should not only unite in one story, but all conduce to add effect to the main narrative which it contains.

Unity is essential alike to a design in painting or sculpture, a description in poetry or eloquence, a composition in architecture, music, costume, or gardening, and a dramatic representation. In each case the main channel of ideas must be kept open and clear, although a certain number of episodes may with advantage be introduced along with it. The lesser streams, however, should feed, not drain the main river; and should also maintain a part so subordinate as to be always clearly distinguishable from it, although they ought at the same time to preserve their connection with it.

The various figures and parts in a composition should, indeed, be so united as to be each essential constituents of that composition, as well as related to one another; and each should moreover be necessary to the place which it fills. If a figure or a metaphor may as well be in one part of the composition as another, it may probably be as well out of it altogether.

As all the different branches, however varied or diverging, are part of the same tree, so all the different figures in a representation are portions of the same composition. By preserving the unity of the subject the whole intent of the composition is evinced at once, and thus all our ideas are directed in the proper course. In every composition the entire design should appear to be directed to one object, to proceed from one mind, and to be of the same character.

Moreover, as distraction of the mind is ever displeasing, and

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what the mind always appears especially to shun, and as the promotion of gratification is, on the other hand, one of the leading objects of art; so disunity, which is particularly calculated to promote the former, should be ever avoided.

But there is a governing principle in composition as regards the union and harmony of parts, not only in groups but in single figures, and not only in figures, but even as regards the parts of a figure; as in the human countenance, in which the expression of the various features should be all harmoniously blended so as to produce one effect.

As in the case of variation of forms, so in an analogous manner in that of unity, it should be at the same time free from uniformity. It should be the unity of nature, not that of mechanism. It should resemble rather the unity in form of an animal or a tree, than the uniformity in shape of a piece of furniture, or of a machine. Here, as in many cases of ethics as well as art, the right line lies between the two extremes.

It is the province of correct judgment and true taste to guide us aright to this happy medium.

VIII. In addition to the direct application of the various principles already enumerated for artistical composition, there are certain collateral and indirect means to be resorted to, which are of essential importance both in themselves and for aiding the effect and the operation of others; and which are not the less striking because, as in many of the works of nature, their immediate result is not perceivable.

Design, indeed, of single figures, in common with composition, admits of auxiliaries of this kind; but the more complicated the performance, the greater is the opportunity for and the greater is the need of this assistance. The present subject, therefore, belongs more properly to composition than to delineation, although to a large extent common to both. Of these auxiliaries, the introduction and use of ornament is probably the most frequent and the most efficient.

An ornament may be defined to be some object or subject which is of itself directly calculated to call forth pleasing ideas in the mind relating to, or associated with the composition; but which object or subject is, nevertheless, of itself,

wholly independent of, and not at all necessarily connected with it.

Ornaments contribute to the effect of an artistical composition, in a manner analogous to that in which particular traits of conduct contribute to the moral character of a man. They give a bias to the whole, and are regarded when more important and essential points are overlooked. We judge, not by what is before us, but by what strikes us. To a certain extent, and in certain cases, ornament is not only desirable, but essential in each of the arts. It is effective in itself, and it is effective also as a cause of variety. So important, indeed, is the proper and judicious use of ornament, that it has, in some instances, served to confer merit on performances which were utterly devoid of every good quality. It conduces as much as anything, to give a character to a work of art. But as its proper use is highly advantageous, so its abuse is proportionably deleterious and dangerous.

As regards the amount of ornament to be bestowed on any particular work of art, much must of course depend on the character of the work. Some of the most striking and effective productions have been composed without the addition of any ornament whatever. Such are the statues of the 'Venus de Medicis,' and the 'Apollo Belvedere.' Nor do they suffer anything from the want of it, possessing, indeed, in themselves all that ornament could bestow. Some of the finest of Cicero's orations are those which have the least ornament.

Ornaments and episodes are, as it were, props or resting places to relieve the monotony of a long and unvaried, or too exciting story. Ornaments should, as far as practical, while aiding the composition, be made useful; and the directly useful portions of the design should, in their turn, be rendered ornamental. Or rather, the useful parts should be so adapted as to be of themselves ornamental, and the ornamental parts to be useful. The principle that the useful and the ornamental should ever be united, and as much as possible be rendered identical, is especially essential, as it is also exemplified in eloquence.

Ornaments, in their management and disposition, should be

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subject to the same rules as episodes, and the other adjuncts to a composition. Care should, moreover, be taken, that what are intended for ornaments should be not merely additions, but serviceable also to the composition into which they are introduced. They should be calculated to give animation to, as well as to second the general effect intended to be produced. Auxiliaries of this nature should not only add to the narration, but really aid the story. Some of them, on the other hand, merely conduce to interrupt it, and divert instead of direct the attention. In each of the arts, the value of ornament depends entirely on the skill used in the application of it. According as this is the case, it becomes a regimen or a poison, a beauty or a defect. It may be its brightest glory, or its grossest blemish.

Ornament in painting is in the nature either of shape or colour. The same principles are applicable for its use in either case. In each case, too, its main value consists in giving vigour and effect to the whole design; and the true test of its appropriateness is whether it succeeds here.

Two things should, therefore, especially be observed as to ornament in whatever branch of art:-1. They should be auxiliary to the whole design. 2. They should be in character with the composition in which they are used.

Ornaments which do not aid, perplex or mar the genera aim and object. Ornaments differing in their nature from the design, destroy its effect, as, for instance, gaudy ornaments in a grand composition, which are subversive of its dignity.

In all the arts, in painting, sculpture, poetry, and architecture, equally with music and eloquence, and also acting, costume, and gardening, excessive ornament deteriorates from the composition; and the more exalted its nature, the more it is liable to be thus injured by being enervated and debased. Ornament, indeed, may be invaluable; but it is allowable only as an auxiliary to art. When it assumes the rank of a principal it deserves to be deposed. Indeed, if ornament, either in painting or architecture, is carried too much into detail, or is made too minute, it is apt to degenerate the whole performance from one of beauty into mere prettiness. This is equally

VOL. II.