(1) In the first place, the pupil must see what the lesson is about, must get some general idea of its purpose and subject-matter.

(2) Having acquired an idea of the lesson as a whole, he must analyze it into its divisions and subdivisions and then proceed to attack it in logical order.

(3) A pupil must know also when the lesson is prepared. Here the teacher may help him largely, by telling him what the purpose is. In writing, it may be the acquirement of certain skill; in arithmetic, the power to solve certain kinds of problems; in science, the mastering of certain principles. The teacher may give the pupil some simple methods of testing himself, so that he will know when he has really mastered his work. This idea of mastery is the highest that the teacher can inculcate, because it becomes the ideal toward which the pupil strives.

(4) Every lesson must be prepared thoroughly, and that means that it must not only be understood, but that it must be practiced or repeated or reviewed until it is a part of the person himself. A thing must be done until it can be done well, or it must be repeated until it is firmly fixed in memory.

(5) When the lesson is understood and mastered, it should be related in thought, and, if possible, applied to some practical use. The lessons in science are related to everyday life, the lessons in arithmetic to business transactions, the lessons in literature to character and conduct. When the pupil can be induced to apply his lessons to any of these purposes, he is on the royal road to learning.

(6) Real permanent mastery of any lesson cannot be assured until that lesson has been properly related to those which have preceded it or has been shown to have some definite and permanent connection with something else. This principle and the others which have preceded it, the teacher will notice, follow out the principles of mind activity discussed in the preceding pages and which appeared also in our discussion of the recitation. They appear here

from a different point of view. What we wish to accomplish now is to lead the pupil to see that it is necessary for him to apply these principles willingly and effectively to the preparation of his own lessons.

Caution. It is not possible to give all these directions at once or to expect that they will be followed freely and intelligently by all pupils. Growth in this respect is sometimes very slow, but by the time the pupils leave the grammar grades they should be able to study independently and methodically.

15. Oral Instruction. We have already spoken in this chapter of the different methods of conducting the recitation, but here we wish to emphasize the importance of oral instruction. In the primary grades it is the only sort of instruction within the grasp of the pupils, and in all grades the living voice is the greatest stimulus to intellectual activity. It is through oral instruction that the personality of the teacher can make the greatest impression upon the pupil. The oral recitation is the most effective way of testing the pupil and of giving him the opportunity of expressing himself - thus acquiring the art of speechand of fixing in mind the subject about which he talks. The teacher should talk with the class and with individual pupils at every opportunity.

In emphasizing oral instruction we do not belittle the use and value of text-books nor underestimate the importance of written work submitted by the pupil. But the pupil's understanding of the text-book and his preparation to do written work depend in a large measure upon skilful oral instruction.

Caution. Notwithstanding the value of oral instruction, in using it the teacher should constantly guard against the following tendencies:

(1) Presenting the subject from her own instead of the pupil's point of view; that is, making the instruction too difficult.

(2) Waste of time by use of too many words.

(3) Not allowing the pupil to do his share of the work. (4) Wandering away from the subject. The successful teacher sticks to the lesson assigned, using only such additional matter as may be necessary to make clear the points under discussion.

16. Written Work. The introduction of written work into all grades is advisable, but it should be used sparingly in the primary grades. Children should practice writing until they can make most of the letters, before they are given formal written exercises. Until they have a fair mastery of the mechanics of writing, they are unable to express themselves freely in written work. The best plan is to begin with exercises which call for only a few words to answer a question, and gradually increase the length of the exercises as the pupils progress in their studies. The tendency is to require too much written work in the primary grades.

In the preparation of written exercises the pupils are given time to think what they will say and to say it in the best possible manner. They are given practice in the art of formal expression and know that the result is the best that they are able to produce. Moreover, what they have written is fixed and unalterable, and there is no possibility of excuse for errors and imperfections, so that written papers show most exactly the character of the pupils' knowledge. Upon the written papers, too, the teacher is enabled to spend more time and to make her criticisms and suggestions after due consideration. Such work as she does under these conditions ought to be even more helpful in some respects than any words said in class. The pupil can see his mistake, can receive the criticism, and in quietness, with time for consideration, can make the corrections. This indicates to some extent the real educational value of written exercises.

(a) ARRANGEMENT. One of the most effective ways of training the aesthetic emotions is to insist always that the work of the pupils should be as beautiful as circumstances will permit. Roughly torn pieces of paper, irregular in

shape and unfitted to the character of the exercise, should never be accepted. Paper is so inexpensive now that any teacher may insist on having the exercises written on suitable pages. For instance, the long columns of words that appear in the spelling lesson look better on wide than on narrow strips of paper. The examples in arithmetic, the maps in geography, and the tables and outlines in history require sheets that are wider in proportion, and, unlike the spelling exercises, look better if the paper has no lines.

After the paper has been selected, attention should be given to the arrangement of the work on the paper. A proper sense of economy may require that examples in arithmetic should be somewhat crowded upon the page, but each may be kept separate and distinct, and, as in every other written exercise, a reasonable margin may be kept at the left for corrections.

Besides the proper margin and the orderly plan which we have mentioned, a sheet should have a certain balance; that is, the weight of the exercise should be distributed in such a way over the sheet that the whole will be symmetrical and in a kind of equilibrium about the common center. To illustrate this, we might call attention to a letter or note written upon a single page. Here the date at the top and right, and the address at the top and left, are above the body of the note and are balanced by the superscription and signature below. If a small picture or initial letter is used in the upper lefthand corner of a sheet, a similar design in the lower righthand corner gives perfect balance. This may be carried to too great an extreme, for perfect symmetry is wearisome.

Caution. In all cases economy should be observed in the use of paper and other school supplies, whether they are provided by the school authorities or by the pupils. Use what material is necessary to secure good results and let the pupils understand from the beginning that paper spoiled by carelessness will not be replaced.

To orderly and balanced arrangement may be added any

amount of enrichment or beautifying that does not extend to overcrowding. To neat penmanship and lines of even length, to indentation and proper spacing between words and sentences may be added handsome initial letters, pen and ink sketches or colored work, as the taste and ability of the pupil may suggest. If the teacher shows an interest in these things and encourages her pupils to beautify their work, she will meet with ready response and possibly be surprised, at times, by the good taste shown by her pupils. Where drawing has not been taught, pupils, especially in the elementary grades, will find great pleasure in decorating or enriching their essays by pictures cut from papers, magazines or advertising circulars. These pictures may not only add to the beauty of the essay, but may also add clearness and interest to the description or narration.

(b) MARKING PAPERS. There are among teachers two extremes in regard to the examination of papers. One extreme is the over-conscientious but not over-wise teacher who becomes a veritable slave to examination papers, using up each day long hours that she needs for exercise and for sleep. At the other extreme is the teacher who has little actual sympathy or conscience. She requires the work of the pupils, collects the papers and consigns them to the waste-basket without even a glance.

Neither of these teachers is wise, neither is doing herself or her pupils full justice. The real problem is to avoid extremes and to avoid needless waste of nervous energy. When the teacher reads entirely through every paper every day and, having faithfully corrected every error found, even to the last comma, hands the papers back to the pupils, the result is often disheartening in the extreme, for frequently the pupil crams the paper into his pocket or tears it up without a look at the errors, the correction of which has cost his teacher such strain upon eyes and nerves.

It seems wiser, therefore, to have the ordinary written. exercises corrected and marked in class as far as may be. There are several successful ways of accomplishing this: