10th August, Guadet, and other Girondists, were the most effective members of the executive committee, in which they not only avoided any act of violence, but protected the proscribed. But they were soon compelled to yield to Danton's party, which had the Paris mob upon their side, and to suffer the massacre of the prisoners, upon the 2d September, to take place under their eyes. Their republican spirit awaked anew, when the army of the allies entered France, and Guadet proposed that the town of Longwy should be levelled with the ground, because it had suffered the enemy to enter it. He opposed, with great force, the Orleans faction, and demanded the punishment of the crimes of September 2. But the Girondists, who had just drawn up a new constitution (the work of the celebrated Condorcet), could not, from their known principles, depend for assistance upon either the constitutionalists or royalists, and the Jacobins reproached them with their former connexion with the court. Guadet was exposed to the most violent attacks from the Jacobins and the Cordeliers (the followers of Marat), because he was the principal object of their dread. This was particularly the case with Robespierre. But the orator of the Garonne alone, and by the force of his talents, overthrew the popular favorite, so that even his enemies were constrained to admire him. Guadet displayed himself most signally, when he accused Danton and Robespierre of being the supporters of a far more dangerous party than that of the Gironde. To refute the calumnies of their enemies, they also proposed that sentence of death should be decreed against any who should propose the recall of the Bourbons to the throne, and against the emigrants; they also moved the decree for the imprisonment of the duke of Orleans. At the king's trial, Guadet, Gensonné and Vergniaud voted for his death, after their proposal in favor of an appeal to the nation had been rejected. (Vergniaud's extemporaneous Appeal to the People is one of the most eloquent orations in the French language.) After the sentence of death was pronounced, Guadet made great efforts to delay the execution, and procured the fourth vote in that unfortunate trial. But their enemies were too powerful for them. They declined still more after they had the imprudence to propose a decree against Marat, on the 20th April. He was acquitted by the revolutionary tribunal, and the Mountain thought that they might now venture to bring the leaders of the

Girondists to the bar of the tribunal. The Jacobins, however, seeing that they should be unable to deprive the Girondists of their majority in the assembly, employed the sections of Paris, which made their appearance before the convention, and with tumultuous cries demanded the condemnation of the Girondists; but Guadet was triumphant, both on this occasion and subsequently, when the whole commune of Paris repeated the demand. The mob of the suburb St. Antoine and others were now induced to take arms, and the tocsin was sounded on the 31st of May, 1793. An armed mob surrounded the convention, while Hassenfratz, accompanied by a troop of pretended petitioners, and supported by their murderous cries, demanded the outlawry of 22 Girondists. At this decisive moment, Guadet took possession of the tribune, and his party seemed once more to triumph; but the resistance lasted only to the 1st and 2d June; the Jacobins, supported by a lawless mob, gained the superiority, and 34 Girondists were put under sentence of outlawry, and summoned to appear before the revolutionary tribunal. The greater number of the accused endeavored to save themselves by flight to the western departments, where they hoped to raise the standard of rebellion against the assembly. This body, however, sustained by terror, which had become the great engine of government, advanced with steady steps to their object. The number of the proscribed was increased to 53; 66 others, who had protested against the proceedings of the 1st and 2d June, were expelled from the assembly, and even imprisoned. Executions rapidly succeeded each other. Gorsas first suffered under the guillotine (Oct. 7, 1793), and, on the 31st, Brissot, Gensonné, Vergniaud, Silléry, and 17 others.

A few escaped, and among them Louvet, who published the occurrences relating to his proscription in a very interesting form, under the title of Quelques Notices pour l'Histoire, &c. Roland, Pétion, Condorcet and others, killed themselves. Guadet was executed at Bordeaux (July 17, 1794), at the age of 35 years, and soon afterwards his father, aunts and brother, as relations of a person proscribed. The Girondists were pure patriots, with the image of ancient republicanism and heroism before their eyes, as their speeches and measures show: they were animated by an elevated love of liberty, but their doctrine did not answer the urgent demands of so violent a period, when France, torn by civil discord, was threat

ened by powerful enemies from without. The struggle of the Girondists with the Mountain, is one of the most interesting events in the French revolution. (See Mignet's Révolution Française.)

GIROUETTE (French, weathercock). In recent times, when political systems have succeeded each other in France with startling rapidity, many individuals of distinction have been found, of course, to turn with every political breeze, and a Dictionnaire des Girouettes has been published, containing the names of numerous public characters, with a number of weathercocks against each name, corresponding to the number of changes in the individual's political creed. The Nestor of the girouettes is probably Talleyrand (q. v.), over whose name it would be sufficient to draw a few weathercocks and several points, as the mathematicians designate ad infinitum.

GIULIO ROMANO (properly Giulio Pipi); the most distinguished of Raphael's scholars and assistants. He was born at Rome, in 1499. During the lifetime of Raphael, he painted with him and under his direction, and his inclination for the terrible and violent was kept within proper limits; but after Raphael's death, he followed his inclination more freely. After having finished the great hall of Constantine at Rome, under Clement VII, he went to Mantua, not, as is generally supposed, to avoid the anger of the pope, on account of some indecent pictures sketched by him, and engraved by Raimondi (as these appeared later), but at the request of count Castiglione. He here found a wide field for the exercise of his powerful genius, both in architecture and in painting. The palace of the T was ornamented entirely by him, or by his scholars under his direction. The school which he here opened, made the principles of Raphael known in Lombardy. After the death of San Gallo, in 1546, the building of St. Peter's was committed to him; but he died the same year. While he only aspired to follow his master, he showed himself judicious, graceful and pleasing; but when he afterwards gave himself up to his own imagination, he astonished all by the boldness of his style, by the grandeur of his designs, by the fire of his composition, by the loftiness of his poetical ideas, and his power of expression. We admire all these qualities united in the fall of the Titans, in the palace of the T, and in the History of Constantine (at Rome). He is accused of leaving the study of nature for that of the antique style, of not understanding dra

pery, of a uniformity in his heads, and of a hardness in his coloring. On the other hand, no master has displayed more talent and science in his paintings. His most distinguished scholars were Raphael dal Colle, Primaticcio and Giovanni Battista Mantovano.

the

GIUNTI. This celebrated family of printers, called also Junta, Junta, Juncta, Giunta and Zonta, originated not from Lyons, as has sometimes been supposed, but from Florence, where they appear as early as 1354. The branch of the family which still remains there, was elevated to the patrician rank by a decree of 1789. They were eminent as booksellers and printers, in the latter part of the 15th century; and their presses at Venice, Florence, Lyons, and later at Burgos, Salamanca and Madrid, contributed, by the valuable works which issued from them, to the promotion of European civilization. The oldest of these presses appears to be that at Venice, established by Luke Antonio Giunti, who removed from Florence to Venice in 1480. At first, from 1482 to 1498, he only sold books, and had his printing done by other hands (Catharina di Sienna Dialogo de la Divina Providentia, Venice, Mthi. da Codeca, 1482, 4to.). But, in 1499, he set up a press of his own, the first product of which was J. Mar. Politiani Constitut. Ord. Carmelitarum, 4to. His last impressions are dated 1537, year of his death. The establishment was continued, after his death, under the name Hæredes L. A. de Giunta, then under the direction of his son Thomas, whose printing-office was burnt in 1557. It was rebuilt, and continued under various masters till some time in the next century. In 1644, the heirs of Thomas Giunta appear, as partners in the house of Fr. Baba, and this connexion was still existing in 1648. The last publication known to be from the Venetian press, is in 1657 (H. Ochi Lib. III, de Febribus, Ven. apud Juntas, 1657). Their editions are not at all distinguished from the common Venetian editions of the time, and rank far below the best of Manucci, Giolito and others. The Giuntine editions are neither distinguished for paper nor type, and seem not to have been intended to promote the cause of literature, but merely for pecuniary profit. The Venetian Giunti appear not to have published any editions in parchment. They also published but few Greek works. The edition of Cicero by Victorius, in 1534, is almost their only remarkable publication. Their missals are not without value. Philip Giunti, whose branch of

the family was afterwards so celebrated, and who was son of one of the same name, and nephew of Luke Antonio, established himself in his native city of Florence. He probably enjoyed the instruction of Christopher Landino. He had a printing-office in Florence, and the first publication which issued from it was Zenobius, in 1497. After the death of Philip (1517), the establishment was continued by his heirs. The last work published at the Florentine office, seems to have been Buonarotti's Rime (1623). The types of this office need not fear comparison with those of Manucci; but are rather inferior in variety. Their Italics might perhaps be preferred. But the paper, the ink, and the whole appearance of the editions of Aldus are better. The Florentine office also published some large paper editions, and some good editions in parchment. They probably possessed a type foundery, by which other contemporary printers in Florence were supplied. The Giuntine editions have not yet been thought worthy of being the subject of particular collections, although they appear to deserve it as much as the Aldine (q. v); and it has been quite too hastily concluded, that their editions were only republications of the Aldine texts. The intrinsic value of their editions is greater than is generally allowed. An accurate examination of the Italian authors, printed at this office, shows what great advantages the Giunti derived from the scholars, whom they, as well as the Manucci, knew how to collect around them. This commendation is less applicable, however, to the office at Lyons, founded by Jacob de Giunta, from Florence, son of Francis, who appears to have been at Venice in 1519, but is found in 1520 at Lyons, where he was first a publisher, and, after 1527, a printer. After his death, in 1548, the concern was continued by his heirs, of whom we find traces in 1592. The relations which subsisted between the Italian and Spanish offices, as also among these last, are not so easily explained. Juan Junta printed at Burgos, in 1526, 28 and 51; Philip, perhaps the same person with the Florentine Philip the younger, from 1582 to 93. Juan Junta is found as a printer at Salamanca, 1534 -52, who, from all appearances, must have been the Juan Junta of Burgos, and, in 1582, Luke appears there also. We find Giulio Giunta at Madrid, in 1595, who died in January, 1618; and Thomas Junta or Junti, from 1594 to 1624, who appears to have been the royal printer in 1621. An index of the Giuntine editions,

to 1550, may be found in Ebert's Biblical Lexicon.

GIUSTINIANI COLLECTION; a beautiful collection of paintings, which the king of Prussia bought, in 1815, at Paris. It is now, with a selection of the most beautiful pictures from the different royal palaces, in the magnificent museum, lately built by Mr. Schinkel. These pictures were collected by a marquis Giustiniani, living at Rome towards the end of the 16th century. In 1807, the collection was carried to Paris, where the prince Giustiniani sold it to M. Bonnemaison. There are now 170 pictures belonging to it.

GIVEN is a term frequently used by mathematicians, to denote something supposed to be known. Thus, if a magnitude be known, it is said to be a given magnitude. If the position of a thing be known, it is given in position; if a circle be described with a known radius, its centre is given in position, and its circumference given in magnitude, and the circle itself is said to be given both in magnitude and position. If the kind or species of a figure be known, it is said to be given in species; if the ratio between two quantities be known, these quantities are said to have a given ratio, &c. &c.

GIVET. (See Charlemont.)

GIZEH; a city of Egypt, on the left bank of the Nile, 3 miles above Cairo; population, 8 or 10,000. The walls are of great extent, with only one gate to the country; they are 10 feet high and three thick; the palace is in the south quarter, near the Nile. Here is a cannon foundery. The houses are built of brick and clay; and the town has no other ornament than four or five mosques, with minarets, and some palm trees. A great number of earthen pots are made here, and tiles, coarse and without varnish, of which the Egyptians do not well know the use. Gizeh is chiefly distinguished for the pyramids situated in its neighborhood, two of which, those of Cheops and Cephrenes, are the most remarkable in Egypt. According to some authors, the city of Memphis was situated here.

GIZZARD. (See Stomach.)

GLACIERS. The summits and sides of mountains, above the limit of perpetual snow (see Snow), are covered with a crust, which is harder than common snow, yet not like common ice. More ice is formed on the sides of mountains than on their summits; but this does not constitute the glaciers, properly so called. The glaciers are vast fields of ice, extending from the declivities of the mountains down into

the valleys, below the snow-line. They are often horizontal, generally, however, a little inclined. The ice of the glaciers is entirely different from that of the sea and river water. It is not formed in layers, but consists of little grains of congealed snow; and hence, though perfectly clear and often smooth on the surface, it is not transparent. Its fracture is not radiated, like that of sea-ice, but granular. In the numerous fissures, however, the ice near the surface has a greenish, near the bottom, a blue cast. Along the edges of the glaciers, are the moraines, as they are called in Savoy (in Iceland, jökelsgiärde). They consist of an accumulation of earth, which is often several fathoms high, and, in summer, present the appearance of bottomless morasses, producing no vegetation. It is probable that these moraines are produced by the melting of the lower part of the glacier, which always takes place in summer, without which the annual accumulation of snow, in winter, would form an endless crust. The great ice-fields are also continually extending further down into the valleys, where, in summer, they are at last partially melted by the warmer temperature. In Lapland, where the sun has less power, glaciers slide down in the region of the Sulitelma, which render the air so cool, that the line of perpetual snow extends as low as 3000 feet above the level of the sea. The descent of the glaciers, which is assisted, in summer, by the avalanches, is greater or less, according to the inclination of the glacier. This is shown by the changes in the position of large masses of rock around the glaciers. They are evidently pushed along by the ice, and, near the Grindelberg, in Switzerland, it has been found, by examination, that stones have been pushed forward 25 feet in one year. Stones of considerable bulk are also seen in the moraines of an entirely different formation from those of the valley, and must therefore have been pushed down from the higher regions in the course of time. As glaciers, in some positions, and in hot summers, decrease, they often also increase for a number of years, so as to render a valley uninhabitable. Their increase is caused partly by alternate thawing and freezing; their decrease, by the mountain rivers, which often flow under them, and thus form an arch of ice over the torrent. Streams are seen at the bottom of the deepest fissures, which, in the Helvetic Alps, are called dust or powder avalanches, because they consist of newly fallen snow, which

is carried by the wind into the depths. There are also, particularly in the Norwegian Alps, dirt avalanches, so called, which carry along stones and earth with them, and increase the moraines of the glaciers. In the Tyrol, Switzerland, Piedmont and Savoy, the glaciers are so numerous that they have been calculated to form altogether a superficial extent of 1484 square miles. There are some glaciers, in Savoy, more than 14 miles long, 2 miles wide, and from 60 to 600 feet thick. One of the most famous glaciers is the mere de glace (sea of ice) in the valley of Chamouni, about 5700 feet above the level of the sea. In France, near Beaume, and in the Carpathian mountains, near Dselitz, are subterraneous glaciers, which never melt, because the sun cannot act upon them. From this account, it is evident that there can be no glaciers in the Andes, because the temperature continues the same the whole year between the tropics. The noise which is produced by the opening of fissures in the glaciers is immense, and resembles thunder among the mountains. These fissures are often immediately covered with snow, and are therefore very dangerous to travellers. (See Avalanches.)

GLACIS, in fortification, is the sloping covering of the outer breastwork along the covered way, which descends to the level ground, and covers the ditch upon the outside. It must be so placed, that the guns of the fort will rake it at every point.

GLADIATORS Were combatants, who fought at the public games, in Rome, for the entertainment of the spectators. They were at first prisoners, slaves or condemned criminals; but afterwards freemen fought in the arena, either for hire, or from choice. The regular gladiators were instructed in schools intended for this purpose. The overseer of this school purchased the gladiators, and maintained them. They were hired of him by those who wished to exhibit games to the people. The games were commenced by a prælusio, in which they fought with weapons of wood, till, upon a signal, they assumed their arms, and began in earnest to fight in pairs. In case the vanquished was not killed in the combat, his fate was decided by the people. If they decreed his death, the thumb was held up in the air: the opposite motion was the signal to save him. In general, they suffered death with wonderful firmness, and the vanquished often exposed himself to the death-blow. If he wished to appeal to the people, he raised his hand. When

a gladiator was killed, attendants, appointed for the purpose, dragged the body, with iron hooks, into a room destined for this purpose. The victor received a branch of palm or a palm garland. The gladiators were often released from further service, and received, as the badge of freedom, a wooden sword (rudis).

Gladiatorial Statues. The most celebrated gladiatorial statues are-1. the gladiator Borghese, which Winckelmann considered to be the statue of a warrior, or of a caster of the discus. Lessing thought it the statue of Chabrias; Nibby supposed it to be the statue of a Gaul, from the acroterium of the temple of Apollo at Delphi, which had been placed there in commemoration of the defeat of the Gauls before the city. It is a combatant, with extended arm, in the act of warding off a blow. It is a statue of the first rank, made of fine grained marble, and is now in the capitol, to which it was restored from Paris, 1815. 2. The dying gladiator, purchased from the Ludovisian collection for the Museum Capitolinum. It is a dying warrior, according to Zoega, a barbarian, who has received a wound in his breast, and is in the act of falling, with an expression of rage. The mustachios and the rope on the neck are perhaps the work of a modern artist, Michael Angelo.

GLAIR EGGS is the same as the white of eggs, used as a varnish for preserving paintings. For this purpose, it is beat to an unctuous consistence, and commonly mixed with a little brandy or spirits of wine, to make it work more freely, and with a little lump sugar, to give it body, and prevent its cracking, and then spread over the picture with a fine, elastic brush. GLAMOUR, OF GLAMER; an old term of popular superstition, in Scotland, denoting a kind of magical mist believed to be raised by sorcerers.

GLANVIL, OF GLANVILLE, Ranulph de; an English baron of the 12th century, celebrated as a lawyer and a warrior. He was of Norman descent; and, in the reign of Henry II, held the office of justiciary of the kingdom. It was at that period that he signalized his valor in repelling the invasion of England by William, king of Scotland, who was taken prisoner as he was besieging the castle of Alnwick. Richard I, after his accession to the crown, is said to have imprisoned Glanvil, and obliged him to pay for his freedom the sum of £15,000 towards the expenses of a crusade to the Holy Land. The aged magistrate accompanied his

master on the expedition to which he had so largely contributed, and perished, together with a vast multitude of other English warriors, at the siege of Acre, in 1190. To judge Glanvil is attributed a curious treatise on the laws and customs of England, which was first published in 1554. A translation, by John Beames, of Lincoln's Inn, appeared in 1812, with a life of the author.

GLARUS, one of the smallest cantons of the Swiss confederacy, the seventh in rank, surrounded by the cantons of St. Gall, the Grisons, Uri and Schweitz, contains 445 square miles, with 24,000 inhabitants, of whom 4000 are Catholics, the others Calvinists. On all sides, except towards the north, Glarus is walled in by glaciers and mountains covered with snow. The river Linth flows through it. In 1352, it joined the Swiss confederacy. The inhabitants are distinguished for their industry. The constitution is a pure democracy. The capital,

Glarus, situated on the Linth, has 4000 inhabitants. It lies at the foot of the Glärnisch, a mountain 9500 feet high. It contains a Catholic church, several schools, considerable manufactories, &c. The green cheese, called Schabzieher, is made here. Four miles below Glarus, on the Linth, is Näfels, where the inhabitants twice defeated (1352 and 1388) superior numbers of Austrians.

GLASGOW; a city of Scotland, in the county of Lanark, which has been long distinguished for its extensive commerce and manufactures. It is one of the most ancient towns in Scotland, its origin being generally attributed to St. Mungo, or St. Kentigern, who is said to have founded a bishopric here in the year 560, which was afterwards erected into an archiepiscopal see in 1484. The principal part of the city occupies a plain on the north side of the river Clyde. Its length and breadth are ascertained by two main streets which cross each other at right angles, and run, the one east and west, about one mile and a half, and the other, north and south, three fourths of a mile long. Of the public buildings in Glasgow, the cathedral, or high church, at the north end of the High street, is a splendid edifice, and perhaps the most entire specimen of Gothic architecture that is to be found in Scotland. It is 284 feet long, 65 broad, and 90 feet high within the walls, with two large towers, on one of which a spire was built about the year 1420, making the whole 220 feet in height. Of the other churches, the most remarkable are St.