and even chose him to pronounce the funeral oration over those who fell on the battlefield of Charonea. Ctesiphon proposed to express the public gratitude by honouring him with a crown, which should be proclaimed at the production of the new tragedies in the Dionysian theatre. The Macedonian party was now strong at Athens, however, and the orator Eschines, the life-long rival and personal enemy of Demosthenes, was at its head. The decree had two legal defects; and Æschines proposed to take advantage of these to secure a technical condemnation of Demosthenes. He therefore indicted Ctesiphon for moving an illegal decree. For some reason or other, however, the case was not brought to trial for six or seven years.

In the mean time Philip had died, and Alexander had succeeded him. On the death of Philip, Thebes revolted, and was punished by complete destruction. The Athenian orators, with Demosthenes at their head, were demanded for punishment; but the Athenian people refused to surrender them, and the demand was reluctantly withdrawn. Alexander soon started out on his expedition into Persia, and Demosthenes among others freely prophesied that he would never come back alive. The Spartans revolted against Alexander's general, Antipater, but were completely defeated. This victory of Macedon inspired new terror in the hearts of the Athenians, and Æschines doubtless thought that as Demos

thenes was the acknowledged leader of the antiMacedonian party, this was a favourable time to revive the indictment against Ctesiphon. It was therefore brought to trial, and Æschines poured out a torrent of personal invective against Demosthenes. But clearly he depended on the legal points of the case to secure his verdict.

Demosthenes in his reply skilfully threw consideration of the legal points into the middle of his speech, passing lightly over them, and devoting his chief attention to his own career and a defence of the public policy which Athens herself had adopted and must repudiate if she repudiated him. Artfully appealing to the sympathies of the jurors, and identifying his cause with their own, he accomplished the immensely difficult task of compelling an endorsement of his policy as the best that could have been proposed, even though it had resulted in disastrous defeat. Moreover, he must have felt that the real cause of defeat had been the degeneracy of the Athenians themselves. A less skilful orator would doubtless have poured out a torrent of invective against a pusillanimous and evil-hearted age, and have retired into exile embittered and hopeless. Not so Demosthenes. He chose to remain one in heart with the people to whom and for whom he spoke; and the Athenians felt that he was defending them while he spoke in his own behalf.

The oration "On the Crown" is so great because it is so completely an artful appeal to the

hearts and characters of the men addressed. Demosthenes had learned his audience, and he played upon it as a great musician does on his instrument. He knew that closely logical reasoning and a narrow discussion of the points at issue were of far less importance than the subtle, persistent, insistent, and tactful play upon the emotions, aspirations, and convictions of the audience. There is nothing cunning about this, because Demosthenes was really honest. A dishonest man would have used the same arts cunningly, and have tricked the audience into seeing matters as he saw them. In the case of the oration "On the Crown On the Crown" the only person who appeared to feel tricked after it was all over was the rival orator Eschines, who, because he received less than one-fifth of the votes, was forced to go into exile. In his exile he kept a school, and it is said that on one occasion he recited to his pupils a portion of the great speech that had driven him out of Athens. The audience was entranced. Eschines, noticing this fascination, exclaimed bitterly, "If you had heard the monster himself!"

THE ORATION ON THE CROWN

[TRANSLATED BY THE EDITOR.1]

FIRST of all, fellow-citizens, I pray that God

may inspire in your hearts on this occasion the same impartial good-will toward me that I 1 This translation is based on the scholarly version of Kennedy.

have always felt for Athens and for every one of you.

In his name, in the name of your religion and your honour, I ask that you will not let my opponent decide the way in which I shall be heard I am sure you will not be so cruel! but remember the laws and your oath, which, among the many obligations imposed upon you, require that you hear both sides alike. Not only must you not condemn beforehand, not only must you listen with impartial ear to accuser and accused, but to each you must allow perfect freedom in the conduct of his case.

Æschines has many advantages over me in this trial, fellow-citizens, and two especially. First of all, our stake is not the same. It is a far more serious matter for me to lose your esteem than for my adversary not to succeed in making out his case. For me but I will not allow myself to begin by making an unlucky forecast. For him, however, it is merely a game.

My second disadvantage is the natural disposition of all mankind to listen with pleasure to invective and accusation, but to be irritated and restless when a man is forced to sing his own praises. To Æschines is assigned the part that pleases; to me is left the part that I may honestly say is offensive to all the world. And if, to avoid giving offence in this way, I make no mention of what I have done, I shall be without a defence against his charges, without proof of my claim to honour. In order to give a fair account of my public measures, I must speak often of myself. I shall try to do it with all modesty. Since I am driven to it, it should be charged to my opponent, who has made it necessary.

I am sure, men of the jury, that you will agree with me that I am as much a party to this proceeding as Ctesiphon, for I have quite as much at stake. It is a hardship to lose anything, especially at the hands of an enemy; but to lose your good-will and affection is the greatest misfortune of all, as to gain them is the prize of ambition.

Since this is true, I beg of you every one, hear my defence in that impartial manner required by the law, a requirement which its author Solon, who certainly had the interests of the people at heart, believed should be given validity not only by being enacted and recorded in the statutes, but by being included in the oath of the jurors; not because he distrusted you, it seems to me, but because the defendant cannot meet the charges and insinuations powerfully impressed by the prosecutor through his advantage of being the first to speak, unless each one of you, the jurors, mindful of the duty resting on you, shall lend an equal and impartial ear to both sides alike before the case is really judged.

As circumstances seem to require that I this day render you an account of my private life and public acts, I first of all invoke God's aid; before you all I pray to him that in this trial I may be favoured with a return of that good-will which I have always cherished for Athens and for every one of you; and also that he may guide you to a decision in the case that shall accord with your common honour and with the good conscience of each of you individually.

Had Eschines confined himself strictly to the legal aspects of the case, I should proceed at once to a justification of the decree that I be crowned. But