8p.m. Anthropological: "A Collection of Ethnological Objects from Canada," by the Marquis of Lorne; "A Portrait of an Aboriginal Tasmanian," by Sir Richard Owen; "The Ethnology of the Sudan," by Prof. A. H. Keane. 8 p.m. Civil Engineers Vertical and Horizontal Steam Engines and Rotative Beam Engines

and resignation, Schopenhauer seems for a while to forget his sombre creed. All he writes on suffering as "quieter" of the ambitious, egotistic, rebellious, insatiable, restless will might have been written by Molinos. And to me it seems doubtful, though his language is ambiguous on this head, whether he meant to recommend, or believed possible, the absolute annihilation of unconsciousness. Did he mean more than the ethical Nirvana of the higher Buddhism, suppression of the lower self? (see PP. 528-32). Certainly self-renunciation, being assertion of a higher self, is little akin to annihilation, and the good man lives in others myriadfold. The writer who recognises, as did character to finer issues, and make us free of a Schopenhauer, that suffering may temper the wider world, is scarcely Pessimist pur sang. 9p.m. Royal Institution: "The Art of Fiction," Still, he does not penetrate the true reason why by Mr. W. Besant. we must not fix too obstinately on particular SATURDAY, April 26, 3 p.m. Royal Institution: "Recent Discoveries in Roman Archaeology," I.-The Colos-objects and ends, but hold ourselves ready to seum, by Mr. H. M. Westropp.

for Pumping," by Mr. W. E. Rich. WEDNESDAY, April 23, 8pm. Society of Arts: "Thames Communications," by Mr. J. B. Redman. 8 p.m. Geological: Observations on the Geology of the Line of the Canadian Pacific Railway," by Principal Dawson; "The Dyas (Permian) and Trias of Central Europe, and the True Divisional Line of these Two Formations," by the Rev. A. Irving THURSDAY, April 24. 3 p.m. Royal Institution: "Flame and Oxidation," I., by Prof. Dewar. 8 p.m. Telegraph Engineers. FRIDAY, April 25, 8 pm. Society of Arts: "The Existing Law of Landlord and Tenant in India," by Mr. W. G. Pedder. 8 p.m. Browning: "Caliban on Setebos," by Mr. J. Cotter Morison. 8 p.m. Quekett.

3 p.m. Physical: "The Indicator Diagram of a Gas Engine," by Profs. W. E. Ayrton and J. Perry; "A New Speed Indicator," by Messrs. W. T. Goolden and Walter Baily; "A Metrical Barometer and an Immersion Galvanometer," by Dr. W. H. Stone. 7 p.m. Essex Field Club.

SCIENCE.
SCHOPENHAUER.

The World as Will and Idea. By Arthur
Schopenhauer. Translated from the German
by R. B. Haldane and T. Kemp. Vol. I.
(Trübner.)
WE have here a translation in excellent English
of a German philosopher who was not only a
profound thinker exercising increasing influence,
but a writer of distinguished style, witty,
ironical, apt in illustration, eloquent. The man
himself was a cynic and woman-hater, as we
learn from the graphic account of him quoted
in M. Ribot's admirable work on his philosophy,
the most characteristic trait of which is assuredly
its pessimism. Of Western pessimism he and
Leopardi may be regarded as joint-founders,
though in the East such a view of life has
prevailed from time immemorial. In England
the only literary parallel of importance known
to me is the work of James Thomson, a poet of
real distinction, who has lately died. Schopen-
hauer is said not to have practised the virtues of
asceticism, patience, and humility which he so
fervently recommended as the only way of
salvation. But neither Horace nor St. Paul
claimed for himself perfect consistency of
theory and conduct; and the loud predilec-
tion of Carlyle for silent fortitude was doubtless
proportionate to his own habit of incontinent
complaint.

The pessimism of Schopenhauer is darker
than Byron's, with his "bitter boon, our birth,"
though not so dark, I think, as Leopardi's,
with his "Gentilezza di morir; yet this
philosophy may be regarded as an expansion
of that terrible sentence from the Italian poet,
"Nostra vita, a che val? Solo a spregiarla !
It is the exaggerated view of an atrabilious
man, exceptionally unfortunate, to which we
shall respond according to our own moods,
sympathies, and circumstances, but above all
according to the state of our digestions.

Yet in this long and bitter arraignment of human life there is much which appeals-alas! with the power of naked truth-to nearly all feeling hearts who have left youth behind them. Still, Pessimism blasphemes against the sacramental character of experience, against innocent joy and strong personal love, against the satisfaction to be found in kind deeds, as in the zest of all active endeavour, mischievously denying the possibility of incarnating the Ideal in social organisation and civil polity, though, when he magnifies pure selfless absorption in art, or nature, as also sympathy, benevolence,

a

66 Pues el delito mayor

Del hombre es haber nacido."

More

real thing-in-itself is altogether beyond knowledge; but we do feel this reality within us. Now let us pause to remark that what we feel the reality of is not an abstract, blind, active principle, but conscious, intelligent Will. The two elements of action, Will and Consciousness, are inseparable in thought, and we have no ground for supposing them separable at all. It is deliberately to abandon a position of vantage if we first recognise that our own conscious activity is the only possible type of activity for us, and then proceed to emasculate that real type, rendering it a mere unreal verbal abstraction by depriving it of its essential differentia, consciousness. Thus, however, Schopenhauer arrives at a notion that differs little from Herbert Spencer's " Force," or Büchner's Kraft, and henceforth that is what he means by "Will." Consciousness is for him an accident, but blind force, or energy, is the reality, or substance, underlying both worlds-that of renounce them-which is, that these, though spirit and that of matter. Yet is it not strange they are partial revelations of the supreme not to recognise that, though, for purposes of excellence, are yet partial only, and so may be logical analysis and argument, you may verbally ideally fulfilled and complemented in their very make such abstractions, they have no real condisappearance. Schopenhauer reprobates what tent, no actuality, in man or nature? Here he deems the crude objection of Johnson that the two elements of substance and quality, Shakspere violated poetical justice in the allot-matter and form, are absolutely inseparable, ment of destinies to his characters-quoting involve one another, as do also the concepts, Calderon : subject and object, knower and known. oddly still, Schopenhauer at times seems perfectly aware of this, for he tells us (p. 39) How have Cordelia, Desdemona, Ophelia, sinned "the world as idea only appears with the above others to deserve their fate? Their sin opening of the first eye." "Without this is the sin of all-existence. For the very mediuin of knowledge it cannot be, and thereuniverse itself has a bad heart. There is blind fore it was not, before it." "Outside knowledge unreason, chaos, and the principle of warring there was also no before, no time." "The individuals in the root of being. Yet Pessimism whole world is in and for knowledge, and withwould seem to have touched a lower deep not out it is not even thinkable. The world is enonly in Bahnsen, but in the Dialogues philo-tirely Idea, and, as such, demands the knowing sophiques of M, Renan, only that the brilliant subject as supporter of its existence" (p. 38). Frenchman, with his subtle smile, forbids us In face of all this, he proceeds to explain that to take him at his word. Schopenhauer, how- the "Will" (.e., blind Force) passed through ever, admits a remedy. The blind and vain many grades, or stages, of "objectification," impulse toward life, being once enlightened by through the world of inorganic matter, through knowledge, may turn round and deliberately plant and through animal, before it arrived at refuse to live. We may abstain also from the brain of man, in which, and through which, propagating our miserable race. There are thought was first born; wherein, again, were excellent things said by Schopenhauer in the first enabled to exist a world of objects in space last book on the solidarity of the race; the and time! All this seems to involve a most oppressor does not know that, like Thyestes, he extraordinary tissue of self-contradictions. devours his own flesh; the suffering of the Indeed, the author admits it; and his pretended world is indeed borne by each and all; the answer to the difficulty is none. He, in turn, prosperous man is but a beggar, who dreams accuses Kant of inconsistency because, while that he is a king. maintaining that the categories of time, space, and causality are only valid for experience-in order to enable us to arrange our impressions of phenomena and have no absolute validity beyond the appearance of things to us, he yet makes the thing-in-itself outside experience a cause of our perceptions. But Schopenhauer surely does so also. While urging that the principle of sufficient reason has no application outside the object, outside the process of phenomena, or so-called laws of nature, he yet gives us a metaphysic, not a cosmogony only. While speaking sometimes like a positivist, and refusing to tell the why or how, he yet explains to us that the inmost reality of things in man and nature is a blind Will, or Force, which manifests or objectifies" itself first in the Platonic idea, by which he means the genus and species, or type, and then in particular phenomena. Now this assuredly is a process, a successive selfmanifestation, of blind Force, as Schopenhauer elaborately shows in book ii. (Curiously enough, his cosmogony differs imperceptibly from that of one of his favourite bêtes noirs, Schelling!) But it is change that makes us demand a cause, a sufficient reason. And here we have innumerable changes, while the author professes his agreement with Malebranche, that the invariable antecedents of a phenomenon are but occasional, not real causes-that is, conditions of its occurrence, not adequate ground, base, and

But we must examine briefly the metaphysical basis upon which Schopenhauer erected so gloomy a superstructure. He is a disciple of Kant, claiming to be his only legitimate successor. He compares the man who has truly assimilated Kant to a blind person upon whom the operation for cataract has been successfully performed. Excellent is the refutation of materialism from a Kantian standpoint in book i., which one may perhaps paraphrase thus: the dogmatic materialist is like the child in Browning's poem who feigns that the hobby-horse he carries is indeed carrying him. The external world, of which our bodies and brains are a part, is itself the creature of human thought, with its three fundamental moulds-space, time, and causality. But is Schopenhauer on this head self-consistent? I think not. According to him, the world is my Vorstellung-perhaps rather questionably translated "idea" by Messrs. Haldane and Kempmeaning the phenomenon, or appearance to us, a representation of our thinking and perceiving faculty. He accepts, however, Kant's Ding-ansich, thing-in-itself, as lying behind this representation, the reality of the phenomenal world. This he calls Will, asserting it to be identical with the active, real principle that lies behind our representative, or conscious, intelligent faculty. Save in ourselves, such a

66

“The thing-in-itself is that which is essentially not idea, not obiect of knowledge, but has only become knowable by entering that form. The form is originally foreign to it "

the higher, only perfectly in the highest? The
latter alone illuminate and interpret the former.
But if it be quite true that the idiosyncrasy of
all the types needs an absolute ground and
source, which Schopenhauer sometimes seems
to place in their own self-existence, it is equally
true that the individuals, wherein only are the
types manifested and real, need the same; more
especially is that true of individual persons or
subjects, in whose thought alone can types and
particular objects exist.

stultification, this we can only grant by adding that, though they are not absolute, they ar true relatively-they are proper to the actual state of advancement at which our faculti have arrived. They give us a glimpse of truth but no more. Time, space, and the principle of sufficient reason must alike be complement d and perfected by the development of a high: and fuller organon of knowledge. In that alo can these inherent antinomies of thought be resolved by a more comprehensive intuitio But in that must be contained the ground and inner significance of space, time, and causality; our faculties in it will not be stultified, abolishel, and contradicted, but transfigured, as was the physical body of Christ on Tabor. So will al experience be justified, rationalised, and transformed; but, to know more, we must be more. Thus, was not James Hinton right that such an organon must include more than sense and understanding, must embrace also our affections, our aspirations, our moral sense? may we no add our aesthetic imagination? What revolts the conscience, what lays in the dust our deep and holy affections, what mocks the loftiest aspirations of humanity, cannot be absolutely true, can only appear true, because we know, as yet, but in part, because our faculties have suffered unnatural divorce, because we are ignorant, and our spiritual eyes are dim.

source of it. Where, then, is that to be sought? Schopenhauer tells us in the Idea first, which is out of space and time, but ultimately in blind Force. Surely that is to make the thing-in-itself, the real noumenon behind the phenomenon, into a cause, into a principle of sufficient (or, as it happens, of insufficient) reason. But when we ask, How can these things be? we may hesitate to accept from Schopenhauer the answer once given to a similar question of Nicodemus. I do not profess, he says, to explain how; I merely show you that so it is. Philosophers, therefore, The Ideas (or universals) express themselves only differ from theologians in so far as the latter through an inner teleology, as in the mutual tell us that it is irreverent, and the former that adaptation of the parts and functions of organit is absurd, to question their pet dogmas. Our isms to one another, and through an outer teleauthor confesses that the efficiency of causes ology, by which diverse families and individuals lies in the particular force behind the phe- depend upon each other, and upon their inaninomenon; and this is to grant all we contend mate environments. But this appearance of for. He urges, indeed, that the forces (or design, or final causes, says our author, is only Ideas) are themselves groundless, eternal, not in for our understanding. It is the result of the time and space. But that, if it be true, is not subjection of the one blind Force to the moulds to the point. What he virtually admits is that of our thinking faculty. Yet remember that they are themselves efficient causes, or grounds, the one blind Force is also said to manifest its of the phenomenon. An efficient cause, or a own inmost nature through these subjective sufficient reason, is precisely that which mani- faculties of ours, and their permanent moulds, fests its own inmost nature in the effect. But which alone can give form to experience and of the cause of the successive process of self-laws to nature. If the process that results in manifestation in phenomena, what is the inmost a harmonious co-operation of the diverse organs nature? Is it not zero, according to Schopen- and functions of the cosmos be regarded as hauer? For he says (p. 157), unconscious, unintelligent, I do not hesitate to say that such a conception is absurd and un- The world is only partially intelligible, becaus realisable by thought. The intelligible must we have no perfect organon for its apprehenalso be intelligent, though we may not in every sion. But Pessimism too readily assumes that case be in the secret of its peculiar subjectivity. sin, error, injustice, suffering, are precisely as If invariable antecedents, moreover, do not they appear, are absolute realities. Why, even exhaust causation, they yet are efficient, not within the narrow limits of our present experi only "occasional " concauses, since they them-ence, they are not the ultimate forms of the selves are in turn manifestations of the one phenomenon, not blind alleys leading nowhere, self-existent Energy, which proceeds to pass on but dark and narrow ways issuing upon infinite into the phenomena we term "effects." But, horizons. It is quite true that the conscious take away the subjective element of time, and process in us - as also the process taking place what remains? Why, the eternal self-existent outside our present experience in other men, or Ideas, or types, with the individuals and idio- in nature-seems to issue from an irrational, syncrasies that constitute them. Instead of unconscious Abyss; but to make that appear a process of adaptation of means to ends, you ance absolute is to revolt alike reason, love, would have an unchanging conscious intuition aspiration, and moral sense. The Abyss is but (or many such) in which they are already all dark with excess of light; and it is doubly unmutually adapted or in harmony. But, if you reasonable in a follower of Kant thus to make take away causality, you must substitute a self- time absolute. Yet to regard the individual as existence, wherein the parts of the cosmos perishable is certainly to do this; for it is to shall no longer be isolated, but of mutual regard the mere phenomena of birth and death as implication and necessary interdependence. superior to, victorious over, the individual foci If, however, you take away the general forms, of self-identifying, conscious experience in which or "moulds," as I have called them, of our alone such concepts can have any existence. actual thought-life, you get, of course, your But if, on the other hand, the individual, as particular phenomena transformed along with free active idiosyncrasy or character, be an the categories which shape them. Since man integral eternal factor in that Divine universal is man, he must anthropomorphise God; but conscious Subject (involving many subjects, perwhy elect to deify the bare skeleton of his fectly reflecting, and sympathising with one anown experience, and call it Force or Power, other) who creates and supports the world, then rather than the noblest possibilities of living this life of mingled sorrow and joy is but a Humanity? All intelligible process implies the passing phase of his infinite being, and all that eternal reality of the concrete thing or person happens to him is a necessary factor in his selfappearing to be developed. We feel or know evolution, the final goal, grander and better the conscious process of our experience to be than we can conceive, being still out of sight. real, not only in one element of it, but in all; But certainly "happiness," if by that be meant nor is it possible to disentangle them; they are pleasure without pain, cannot be regarded as Siamese twins, perishing if divorced, mere our being's end and aim; rather is that a reverse faces of the same substance, and no condition into which pain enters as essential more separable than one side from another; constituent, though it may be pain transfigured. they are correlatives, mutually implying and sorrow turned into the joy of triumphant involving one another. The concrete Fact is acquiescence, and tranquil thanksgiving. the real, and that is nothing out of the persons Individuals and their experience, we are told, with a common nature who experience it. are illusion, Māyā. But what is “an illusion" if either of these elements had ever been actually for instance, The mirage? Is it not a misnon-existent, as no doubt may appear to be the interpreted, imperfectly apprehended reality case, it could never have sprung into existence Let us but comprehend the cosmic significance at all. Whatever is has always been. If it of suffering, and we shall embrace it gladly, as seem otherwise, what is the inference? Surely the martyr does consuming flame. We love to this-that our manners of conceiving or appre- endure pain for one we love. The breast of the hending are themselves not absolute;, and that, humming-bird looks dim when viewed from indeed, is exactly what Kant and Schopenhauer certain angles; yet shift your position, and, lo aver concerning the notions of time, space, and a very mine of radiant light, crimson, and causality. But, then, unless reason is to be purple, and gold, deep and splendid as the sunforesworn as a mere elaborate process of self-rise! Not once or twice have men been cast

So that behind the Ideas, or particular forces of nature, we have the one blind Force, which thus manifests its own inner self (!). Now to this we must object ex nihilo nihil. You must not put less into your cause than you find in your effect. From a blauk Being equal to Nothing can never emerge all this rich universe of knowledge, and the innumerable subjects or persons who know it. Man and Nature could never issue from this exhausted receiver of a philosophical fancy, from this emptiest of all verbal abstractions, itself necessarily destitute of existence, away from the ingenious metaphysical brain that spun the airy cobweb. Here, again, at the other extreme end of the scale, we come upon Browning's child who feigns that the hobby-horse he carries is indeed carrying him. The Unconscious revealing itself in consciousness! That is the theme also of Schopenhauer's celebrated living disciple, Von Hartmann.

Moreover, the ideas, or common natures of the particular individuals, and phenomena are declared to be out of time and space, eternal. But that is inconsistent with what I have quoted from p. 157. Indeed,

"From scarped cliff, and quarried stone, She cries, a thousand types are gone.' The type is only relatively more permanent than the individual. The latter, at any rate, has a relative permanence, or we could not disciminate it from the rest. Nor is the type out of time and space, though it is in many different times and spaces. But it is absolutely nothing, so far as we can tell, apart from the individuals that reveal it, except a verbal abstraction in the mind. It is just the common nature of individuals, whose esse is concipi. Nor is there one abstract individual, except in our minds. Schopenhauer agrees singularly with Schelling and Hegel on p. 189! Man is the microcosm. Animal and plant are the descending fifth and third of man, the inorganic the lower octave. The later species imply, are founded upon, gather up into their constitution, all the earlier, though these are raised, as it were, to a higher power. The plant implies the inorganic, the animal implies the plant, man is the rich fullness

of all these. May it not be said, therefore, that the whole nature and meaning of the lower ideas, or stages of existence, is only realised in

But

Although the political attitude of Dumas does not strike one as altogether satisfactory, there can be no question of the excellent work which he did, in his several official positions, in educational and commercial directions and programme, and also a large map of the Book of Esther, and sometimes also for the Hafta

towards the sanitation and better lighting of
Paris. It is not known to everyone that he
founded the Crédit Foncier. He has been since
WITH reference to a note in the ACADEMY of
6 permanent secretary of the Académie des April 5, the hon. secretary of the London
Sciences. He succeeded Pelouze as Master of Mathematical Society writes that Mr. Asutosh
the Mint in 1868, but did not hold the position Mukhopadyay was elected on the grounds of
after the breaking out of the Franco-German being a fair mathematician, and of being desirous
War. In 1875 he was elected into the Académie to assist in the promotion of mathematical
française, filling the chair of Guizot. It is need-research."
less to say that foreign lands also accorded Dumas
numerous marks of distinction. He was elected
foreign member of our own Royal Society in
1840. The Chemical Society of London accorded
im the same honour in 1847. He received the
Faraday medal from the latter body in 1869,
and then gave the first Faraday lecture. The
Royal Society awarded him its Copley medal

MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES.
EDINBURGH MATHEMATICAL SOCIETY.-(Thursday,
April 10.)
THOMAS MUIR, ESQ., President, in the Chair.-Dr.

on

Alexander Macfarlane submitted a note
"Simple, Combination, and Cumulative Voting."
—Mr. A. J. G. Barclay read a paper on "The
Teaching of Geometry."-The subsequent dis-
cussion was carried on by Mr. J. S. Mackay, Mr.
A. Y. Fraser, Dr. Macfarlane, and Mr. Muir.-Mr.
Muir gave an explanation of a theorem commu-
nicated by Prof. Tait to the January meeting of
the society.

SOCIETY OF ANTIQUARIES OF SCOTLAND.—
(Monday, April 14.)

surface, but of produce. The ratio of produce
must in time have altered, but nominally the tax
was not increased. At some period, of which there
is no record, but, probably, in the twelfth century,
the pennylands were valued at their purchase, not
their annual value, in sterling silver marks-each
which time the average value of a pennyland
"markland"-at
part so valued being called a
the rent of a markland was so nearly uniform as to
was four sterling marks. In the Orkneys, in 1503,
suggest that the rate of rent had been fixed at a
comparatively recent period. In Shetland the
assessment by ounces and pennies was abandoned,
and that by marks was substituted. The annual
rent of a markland was fixed in pennies, and varied
from four to twelve pennies, which were paid in
fixed prop rtions of butter and cloth.-Mr. G.
Goudie and Prof. Duns remarked upon the great
importance of this paper as a foundation for future
enquiries into a subject so complicated and obscure,
and which had hitherto baffled the investigation of
the most distinguished antiquaries.

FINE ART.

GREAT SALE of PICTURES, at reduced prices (Engravings, Chromos, and Oleographs), handsomely framed. Everyone about to purchase pictures should pay a visit. Very suitable for wedding and Christmas presents.GEO. REES, 115, Strand, near Waterloo-bridge.

ART BOOKS.

DR. ARTHUR MITCHELL, V.-P., in the Chair.-The
first paper was "An Investigation of the System
of Land Valuation in the Orkney and Shetland
Isles," by Capt. F. W. L. Thomas. The whole
subject of early land valuation is involved in
almost impenetrable obscurity. The special task
which Capt. Thomas had before him was to deduce
from existing materials the answer to the question,
What is a pennyland? This term is of frequent
occurrence in connexion with the ancient land
valuation of the Hebrides; and, as the Hebrides
were under Norse dominion till 1266, it appeared
probable that a solution of the question would be
best found by an examination of the land system
of the Northern isles. The Orkneys continued to be
part of the Norwegian kingdom till 1468; and ANTON SPRINGER'S Raffael und Michelangelo
even then, being merely pledged to James III., they (Leipzig: Seemann), which originally appeared
land tenure, were almost the opposite of those Künstler, has been re-issued in two volumes of
were still ruled by their own laws, which, as regards as the fourth volume of Dohme's Kunst und
of Scotland. The materials for the investigation handy size, with several new illustrations.
are chiefly contained in the rental of the earldom of On the whole, this is the best existing Life of
Orkney, 1497-1503, or within twenty-nine years of Raphael, but we must confess to a feeling of
the separation from Norway, which is still pre-regret that the author has not availed himself
served. In the fifteenth century the land of the of the opportunity of a second edition to intro-
Orkneys was, in respect of property, either Earl's
(subsequently King's) land, Kirk land, or Odal duce a few more changes in certain parts of the
land. The first two terms required no' explana- work. For instance, in dealing with Raphael's
tion. The Odal men, who owned land simply by life between the years 1495 and 1500 we are
descent, became in course of time so numerous
indeed referred to the possible influence of
that the constant subdivision of the odal-lands Timoteo Viti, but the reference is so slight that
necessarily led to poverty and degradation; and a hurried reader might well pass it over. So
the want of a middle class left them still less far as we can see, it appears probable that, of
able to resist the rapacity of the Scottish Earls and all painters under whose influence Raphael
feuars, and the donatories of the Crown. In re- passed at different times, Timoteo was the one
spect of taxation (or skat) for support of the Earl's who produced the most powerful effect upon
Government, the lands of Orkney were either Bord- him. It would, at all events, have been well to
land, Skatland, Quoyland, or Towmale. Bordland, discuss the matter with more thoroughness
being the property of the Earl, paid no skat.
Skatland, otherwise called odal-land, included all than our author has attempted in his brief
the arable land of the townships which existed sentences. As to the "Venice Sketch-Book," his
when the ancient or original valuation roll was opinion is the same as that of the majority of
made. Quoyland, from being subsequently en- those who have paid attention to the subject;
closed, as a rule paid no skat. Though the Raphael had nothing to do with it. He goes
arable land was frequently repartitioned among farther, however, and finds in it the handiwork
the tenants, the house remained in constant posses- of neither Pinturicchio nor G. della Genga.
sion of the household, and a small piece of pasture "Nach meiner Ansicht waren mehrere Hände in
dem Skizzenbuche thätig und ist dasselbe der
Rest eines Muster- und Uebungs-buches einer

land around it was the towmale or tumaill. As the demand for arable land increased, the towmale was dug up or ploughed up. No skat was paid for moorland or "fell." It was considered of so little importance that it is not once named in the rental. Wherever lands are taxed, there must be a valuation of some kind-in old records called "extent; and for this purpose the Orkneys had at an early period been divided into parts which came to be denominated "urislands or "ouncelands," but which there is reason to believe originally were the davach of the former Celtic inhabitants. The meaning of "ouncelands" was that each paid to the Earl money or produce to the value of one ounce of silver. The "ounceland" was divided into eighteen parts, each of which had to pay one

penny, or the value of one penny, and hence was called a "pennyland." The demonstration of this by a detailed analysis of the rental, along with separate demonstrations of the same nature for the different denominations of land and land values in Shetland, formed the substance of the paper. The general conclusions arrived at were that the darach of the old Celtic inhabitants, being assessed by the Norwegian Earls at an ounce of silver, became an "ounceland," and was divided into eighteen parts, cach paying an eighteenth of a Norse ounce of silver, which was equal in weight to an English penny, from which each subdivision was termed a "pennyland." Neither ounce- nor pennyland was a measure of

umbrischen Werkstätte."

WITH unqualified satisfaction we receive a new and more convenient edition of Thausing's already classical Dürer-Geschichte seines Lebens und seiner Kunst. It is divided into two volumes, and is more profusely illustrated than the first edition. Printing, paper, and binding leave nothing to be desired. No more convincing proof of the popularity of the book can be obtained than the fact that it has been translated into Italian, Portuguese, French, and English, and has everywhere been received with the same respect. The learned author did not rush into print with any half-formed opinions; his mind was already made up upon all leading points under discussion when he first wrote, and he has not seen reason to change. The alterations, therefore, in the new edition do not affect matters of principle, and are chiefly confined to certain verbal improvements, and to the addition of a more complete and useful Index. Whatever discoveries, indeed, have in the meantime been made are duly noticed. Thus the original "Postreiter " engraved by Wolgemut and copied by Durer, the existence

of which was unknown till revealed by Harck, is recognised in its place. With other supposed revelations, however, the Professor is by no means satisfied; and, save for a word or two in the Preface, they are passed over in silence more or less complete.

IT has recently been remarked by a leading to a writer upon Italian art is the relation in German critic, that the best test to be applied which he stands to Sig. Morelli. The now famous work of "Ivan Lermolieff" has revolutionised dowed us with a keener critical method than we our opinions upon many matters, and has enhad before possessed, so that for the present a great part of the work of art students is the accommodation of themselves to their new conditions. Nowhere is the fresh influence more felt than in reading the recent numbers of the leading German periodicals which concern themselves with art. The issues of the Repertorium for the past year are now before us, and in them the name of most frequent occurrence and weight is that of the Italian Senator. The principal original articles are by Wastler upon the Graz painter, Giov. Pietro de Pomis, by Bertolotti upon the little known Roman artist Antonazzo (with valuable documents in illustration), and by Dr. Frimmel or the "Triumphs," ascribed to Titian, but which he gives reason to believe were in reality that incarnation of the Renaissance, Leon painted by Bonifazio. Dr. Winterberg contributes a valuable essay upon the works of Battista Alberti, while L. Scheibler deals with the characteristics of Cornelis de Wael, and slaughters the slain in his exhaustive criticism of Wurzbach's monograph on Martin Schongauer, and the "master of the Bartholomaeus altar." much matter of interest to the student of the The reviews and Cologne school of painting. other notices contained in these numbers are of the most thorough character.

The last-mentioned article contains

Der malerische Styl Giotto's. By J. J. Tikanen. (Helsingfors.) This monograph of some fifty pages is, if we mistake not, the result of some of the most lovingly careful work that has yet been bestowed upon the fading remnants of Giotto's pictures. The writer does not enter into the discussion of any vexed questions of authorship or sequence, but devotes his attention wholly to the general changes which the artist introduced. He points out what was novel in Giotto's treatment of the legendary and other subjects, what improvements he made in drawing and gesture, in modelling, in the handling of colour, and lastly in style of ornamentation. These matters are all discussed with great detail and accuracy, and with abundance of intelligible illustrations. Incidentally we gather the writer's opinion (which from the extent of his work is one worthy of the Life of Francis in the upper church at respect) as to the authorship of the frescoes of Assisi. All are from the design of Giotto, and the last half are certainly his handiwork; but as to the first half no definite opinion is given. The frescoes in the right transept of the lower church are from Giotto's design, if not done by his own hand. The monograph is one worthy of careful perusal by every student of the works of the great Florentine. It deals, moreover, in a thorough fashion, with the developments of and thus contains matter of interest to students typical treatments of certain sacred subjects, of iconography.

domestic furniture of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the originals of most of which belong to hospitals, almshouses, and convents in Belgium. They comprise fifteen aumbryes, three sideboards, two tables, four chairs, two chests, a prayer-desk, and a curious combination article of furniture of the fifteenth century which served as a table, cupboard, and prayerdesk for the bedesmen of the old hospice of St. Jodoc at Bruges. The aumbryes figured here vary considerably in size; the largest, which still retains its original painting and gilding, in the sacristy of the church of St. James at Liége, standing eleven feet and a-half high and fourteen feet broad, while the smallest, in the hospice of our Lady of the Pottery at

Bruges, measures only five feet by three and aThe ornamental iron-work-hinges, scutcheons, &c.-is excellent of its kind.

half.

Monographie de l'Eglise de Notre-Dame de Pamele à Audenarde. With Forty-seven Plates. (Bruges.) Audenaarde, a small town on the Scheldt, formerly celebrated for its tapestry, is known to but few English travellers. It can boast, however, of three important monuments its town-house, perhaps the best-planned edifice of its class in Belgium, and two churches forming part of a splendid series of stone buildings, at the head of which stands the cathedral of Tournay. Our Lady of Pamele, the subject of the present monograph, is the finest of the smaller parish churches. Commenced in 1234, under the direction of master Adolphus of Binche, it was completed before the middle of the century. It is a three-aisled cruciform church, with pentagonal apse and ambulatory, a triforium, clerestory, and central tower. On the south of the south aisle are four chapels-an addition made to the building in the early part of the sixteenth century.

THE exhibitions of the old Society of Painters in Water-Colours and of the Institute both open to the public on Monday next. The private view of each is to-day.

THE annual autumn exhibition at Liverpool this year, which opens on September 1, will inaugurate the new buildings of the Walker Art Gallery. The extension affords not only more space, but also better hanging for the pictures sent.

THE Collection of engravings of the Bartolozzi school lent by Mr. Tuer to the recent Bartolozzi exhibition is to be sold at Christie's on April 22. Among the rarer works are a choice set of "The Months," after Hamilton; "A Nest of Cupids," by Schiavonetti, before the forgery of Bartolozzi's name; a proof of "Mrs. FitzHerbert," after Cosway; a presentation proof of "Miss Farren," after Sir Thomas Lawrence, by Bartolozzi (in colours), with a finish equal to that of an ivory miniature; and & complete set of the beautiful series of "Ten Portraits of Ladies of Rank and Fashion," after Hoppner, with letterpress and wrappers as published 1797 to 1803.

IN fulfilment of a clause in the will of Isabella, the last surviving daughter of Thomas Bewick, who died last June, her executors have

presented to the Natural History Society of
Newcastle a large collection of oil paintings,
water-colour drawings, prints, &c. The gift
includes five portraits of Bewick, Bailey's bust
of him in plaster, a set of the cuts of the
Quadrupeds coloured by him for his children,
about two hundred drawings for the Birds, and
nearly two thousand five hundred wood-cuts.
THE well-known firm of Hoepli, of Milan,
announce a handsome work on Raphael as an
Architect, by Baron Enrico di Geymüller. It is
based to a considerable extent on inedited docu-
ments, and it will be illustrated with eight folio

plates and seventy wood-cuts.
THE Nation of March 20 characterises Sig.
Morelli's Italian Masters in German Galleries as
"certainly the most valuable contribution to the
archaeology of Italian art which the modern
scientific spirit has brought out, and causes but
one regret that its field has been so circum-
scribed."

SIG. DE ROSSI has just published a monograph
on the Anglo-Saxon coins recently discovered
at Rome in the house of the Vestals at the foot
of the Palatine.

AT a recent meeting of the Académie des Inscriptions M. Bertrand exhibited a bronze plaque worked in repoussé, forming part of a girdle, which was found in a Celtic cemetery at Watsch, in Carniola, and now belongs to Prince Ernst of Windisch-Gratz. The ornamentation consists of a battle-scene with both horse and foot, in which the weapons can be clearly distinguished, and in especial the javelin with amentum or thong, and the cateia or hatchet of Roman writers. M. Bertrand has had a model javelin constructed from the indications given, and hopes to do the same for the hatchet. The range of the javelin when hurled with thong is about 65 mètres; without the thong, only 25 mètres. M. Bertrand would identify it with the gaesum of the Gauls, described as "longe feriens." The handle of the hatchet was short, and made of an elastic wood. According to Isidore of Seville, it was thrown only at close quarters, and with such force as to break whatever it struck; a skilled warrior could throw it in such a way that, like a boomerang, it came back to the thrower after hitting its mark. At the same meeting M. Clermont Ganneau exhibited some nineteen photographs of two silver candlesticks ornamented with gold plates, and of two copper basins gilt inside, which were found several years ago in a garden at Bethlehem. Both candlesticks bore the same inscription-"Maledictus qui me aufert de loco sce[] nativitatis bethleem." The basins were filled with wax, which had preserved perfectly the ornamentation and inscriptions. The former consisted of a series of scenes from the life of St. Thomas, as recorded in the familiar legends. The inscriptions describe each scene in leonine hexameters. All the objects may be assigned approximately to the twelfth century.

THE STAGE.
OBITUARY.

HENRY J. BYRON.

By the death of Mr. Byron, which occurred
at the beginning of the week, at the age of
fifty years, we lose one of the three or four
really popular dramatists of the day, and per-
haps the most popular of those three or four.
The purely literary public-whose influence is
by no means dominant, nor even very influential,
in the English theatre-never took kindly to
Mr. Byron, and one of the keenest of our
younger dramatic critics has analysed his writ-
ings with extreme severity. But Mr. Archer
did not make quite enough allowance for the
conditions under which Mr. Byron's work had
to be produced; and brilliant as was the method

of his attack, and scrupulously confined as it
was within the limits proper to literary criticism,
an apology for Mr. Byron might yet have been
penned, and need not have been without force.
Greater writers than Mr. Byron have been
credited with the virtue of furnishing "innocent
laughter;" Mr. Thackeray was thankful for the
"innocent laughter" which Charles Dickens
furnished "to my children," even if the innocent
laughter never reached as far as the august
presence of Mr. Thackeray himself. Now Mr.
Byron, especially by his later comedies-by
these much more than by his burlesques-pro-
voked infinite laughter. Analyse him, and his
be quite other than they ought to have been.
constituent parts are undoubtedly discovered to
Merely accept him, and he comes to you as
excellent company-a witty observer, a sharp,
if not very refined, recorder of all sorts of
English middle-class weaknesses.
His puns
were often bad, because most people's puns
are bad, but his repartees were pointed, if
they were often rude. Also, though he must
be said to have written almost chiefly for
the lower middle-class, his satire of that
very class was exceedingly telling. He made
such fun of its ignorance that he was as good
as half-a-dozen Board schools in the way of
abolishing it. What more pungent satire on
the tradesman parvenu could possibly be in-
vented than that contained in the ex-butter-
man's query to his son in "Our Boys," as to
whether he had seen Vesuvius? "Yes, father."
"And an eruption? "No." 'Come now,
come now, that was a mistake, my boy. I said,
'See everything.' I said, 'Never mind the
expense.'

"Our Boys," besides affording an entertaining vision of a shopkeeper who has got on, gave us a complete portrayal of a lodging-house "slavey. The maid-of-all-work has been done once for all in Mr. Byron, as Mrs. Lirriper-her possible mistress-has been done once for all in Dickens. Mr. Byron really observed these people. He knew the good in them, and the vulgar. Now when he betook himself to depict a "Sir Geoffry," or other person of family and of breeding, his observation was somebody else's-his observation was not new. Here again he recalls the greater master-this time by a failure, as in the other case by a success. More than one of his comedies-and"Our Boys" first in the list, we should suppose are likely to last. They are not the work of an exquisite writer, but of a smart and pungent. They are the production, too, of a man who knew

much as Robertson knew-how much, and precisely at what point, the stage could help the study, the actor support the dramatist. Funny, therefore, as his dialogue is to read, it is better to hear; for a long reading reveals the defects of the work-betrays in glaring light its improbabilities. Mr. Byron's colours were candle-light colours. They would not look the same by day, nor as well. But that appears to me no reason why there should be withheld from him the full acknowledgment due to a writer who has amused innocently, and even usefully. His work was not perfect, but it had its native qualities, and they were valuenquiring too curiously-found much in them able; and a great public-not analysing or that was delightful and refreshing.

My Musical Life.

FREDERICK WEDMORE.

MUSIC.

By the Rev. H. R. Haweis.

(W. H. Allen.) THE title of this volume gives an inadequate idea of its contents. In the first 128 pages the author talks about himself, but in the remaining and greater part of the book he has much