the empire. Constantinople, notwithstanding all its misfor tunes, ftill continued, by its trade and opulence, to be one of the most flourishing cities in the world.

Two branches of the family of the Comneni established independent governments, the one at Trebizond, and the other at Nice; and gave their petty ftates the name of empires.

MICHAEL PALEOLOGUS, emperor of Nice, retook Conftantinople from the Latins, A. D. 1261.; but Trebizond remained a diftinct ftate.

During thefe revolutions in the Greek empire, the dominion of the Turks and Saracens in Afia was overturned by GENGISKAN, the chief of the Mongol or Mogul Tartars, who was perhaps the greateft conqueror that ever exifted in the world. He over-ran Ruffia, Tartary, a great part of China, and Indoftan, and in short almost all Afia. He died at an advanced age, A. D. 1226.

A number of Turks, to fcreen themselves from the yoke of the Tartars, had taken refuge in the mountains of Bithynia. OTHMAN OF OTTOMAN, their chief, from whom the Turks take the name of OTTOMANS, and from whom their Sultans or Emperors are defcended, by his courage and addrefs made confiderable conquefts in Afia Minor about the year 1298.

ORCAN, his fon, took Prufa, and made it the capital of his government, 1327. He first invaded Europe, and took Gallipoli.

AMURATH, his fon, having reduced the Thracian Cherfonefus, Servia, Bulgaria, and the city of Adrianople, obliged, by the terror of his arms, JOHN PALEOLOGUS, the Greek emperor, to pay him a tribute. This Sultan firft inftituted the Fania ries, or new foldiers, a body of troops which ever since has been fo remarkable.

BAJAZET, firnamed Ilderim, or the Thunderer, was ftill more formidable as a conqueror than his father. The princes of Europe were alarmed at his progrefs. Sigifmund, king of Hungary, afterwards emperor of Germany, joined by the flower of the French nobility and other auxiliaries, marched against him. A battle was fought near Nicopolis, in which the Chriftians, after difplaying prodigies of valour, were completely defeated by the art of Bajazet, who drew them into an ambuscade. A great many were made prifoners, most of whom were cruelly maffacred; an act of inhumanity of which the Chriftians had formerly fet the example. Bajazet next laid fiege to Conftantinople; but MANUEL PALEOLOGUS, the fon of John, purchased a peace by agreeing to pay an additional

7

tribute.

tribute. In the mean time TAMERLANE, a native of Samarcand in Ufbeck Tartary, faid to be defcended from Zingis-kan, by his mother, having fubdued Perfia, India, and Syria, upon the earnest application of those princes, both Chriftian and Mahomedan, whom Bajazet had made his enemies, led an immenfe army into Afia Minor. Bajazet met him near Ancyra (Angouri) in Phrygia, where, after one of the most bloody battles recorded in hiftory, in which three hundred and forty thousand men are faid to have fallen on both fides, Bajazet was entirely defeated and taken prifoner, A. D. 1402. According to the Oriental hiftorians, he was generously treated by the conqueror; inftead of being confined in an iron cage, and trampled under foot, as is commonly afferted.

Tamerlane having turned his arms to another quarter, the Turks recovered their poffeffions; but were for fome time diftracted by the bloody contefts which arofe among Bajazet's fons. Mahomet, the youngest, having become fole fovereign, fubdued Wallachia and Tranfylvania; and afterwards reigned in peace till his death, A.D. 1422.

AMURATH II. his fon, having fubdued Theffaly and Macedonia, laid fiege to Conftantinople; but was obliged to quit it, in order to quel the revolt of his brother Mustapha; after which he made war on Hungary, and laid fiege to Belgrade. It was faved by John Hunniades, a brave man, governor of Tranfylvania, who defeated Amurath in feveral engagements, and obliged him to fue for peace; whereupon he refigned the fceptre to his fon Mahomet. The Chriftians, by violating the treaty, drew him from his retreat, his fon being yet too young to command the army. He marched against the enemy, and defeated them at Varna in Bulgaria, where Ladislaus king of Poland, and Cardinal Julian, the Pope's legate in Germany, the authors of the war, were flain, A. D. 1444. Amurath again abdicated ・・ the empire; and a fecond time was obliged to quit his retirement, by the exploits of George Caftriot, firnamed SCANDERBEG, (Lord Alexander,) a prince of Albania; who having been educated as a hostage, at the Ottoman court, made his efcape from thence, and took by ftratagem Croia, the capital of that province. Having raifed his countrymen, he conducted his affairs with fuch extraordinary valour and abilities, that Amurath could never overpower him. This Sultan died A. D. 1451.

MAHOMET II. called the Great, laid fiege to Conftantinople in the year 1453; and having made himself mafter of the port, by an expedient almoft incredible, by tranfporting part of his

I i

fleet

fleet over land for the space of two leagues, which he did in one night, by fliding the veffels on a wooden platform covered with greafe, he took the city by affault. CONSTANTINE PALEOLOGUS, the last Greek emperor, fell, fighting bravely, on the breach. The conqueft of Conftantinople was followed by the fubmiffion of all the countries which belonged to it. Mahomet aflumed the title of Emperor. He foon after reduced the city of Trebizond, which had remained a distinct ftate fince the taking of Conftantinople by the Latins, and fubjected to his power all the petty Mahometan princes in that part of Afia. After the death of Scanderbeg, he became mafter of Albania, and meditated the conqueft of Italy. All Europe was struck with confternation, as in the time of the Arabians; but this mighty conqueror died, A. D. 1481, being only fifty-one years old.

The Turks continued to extend their conquefts under a fucceffion of illuftrious princes; BAJAZET II. who died 1512; SELIM, 1520; but chiefly under SOLYMAN, II. firnamed the Magnificent, who was illuftrious also as a lawgiver, and died A. D. 1566. Some additions were also made under SELIM II. AMURATH III. and MAHOMET III. who died 1595. Since that time the Turkish empire has been on the decline.

SPAIN.

SPAIN is fituate between 36 and 44° north lat. 10 and 3° eaft long.; about 700 miles long, and 500 miles broad; furrounded on all fides by the Atlantic and Mediterranean, except where it is feparated from France by the Pyrenees. It is in general a mountainous country, but of a fertile foil, abounding in pasture, and famous for its breed of sheep. /

Hifpania was called by the poets Iberia and Hefperia, or Hef peria Ultima. It was little known by the Romans till their wars with the Carthaginians. They divided it into two provinces, called Hifpania Citerior and Ulterior, or the two Spains, governed by two prætors. The whole country was fubdivided into a certain number of conventus, or districts, in each of which aflizes were held for the adminiftration of juftice. Auguftus divided it into three parts, Tarraconenfis, Bætica, and Luf

tania.

TARRACONENSIS was equal in extent to the other two, comprehending all the north of Spain from the Pyrenees to

the

the mouth of the Duris. Its chief cities on the Mediterranean were, Rhoda, Rofes; Emporia, Ampurias; Barcino, Barcelona; TARRACO, Taragona; Saguntum or -us, the befieging of which by Hannibal gave occafion to the second Punic war; Valentia; Sucro, at the mouth of a river of the fame name, now Xucar; Nova Carthago, Carthagena. The chief people in this part of Spain were the Celtiberi. North-eaft from Tarraco 'food Ilerda, Lerida, the capital of the Ilergetes, near the Sicoris, the Segro, which runs into the Iberus on the north, where Cæfar reduced Afranius and Petreius, the lieutenants of Pompey; Segovia, near the fource of the Tagus, famous for the noble remains of an aquæduct, fuppofed to be built by Trajan. On the Tagus, Toletum, Toledo; NUMANTIA, near the fource of the Durius: the inhabitants (Numantini) made a desperate refiftance against the Romans, and with a small number of men defeated feveral armies fent against them, Flor. ii. 18. The city was at last taken by Scipio Africanus, the younger, who destroyed Carthage, Salluft. Jug. 8.; Strab. iii. 162. North of this were the Vafcones, whofe capital, Calagurris, underwent a horrid famine in the war againft Sertorius, Juvenal. xv. 95. the CONCANI, famous for their favage manners, and drinking the blood of horses, Horat. od. iii. 4. 34. Sil. iii. 361. and the Cantabri, the laft nation in Spain which was fubdued by the Romans, under Auguftus. From them the Bay of Biscay was called oceanus Cantabricus. At the mouth of the Durius ftood Calle, on a rifing ground, now Oporto, or Port a Port; whence is derived the name of Portugal, as it were a portu Calle. North of this dwelt the Callaci, along the Minius, Minho, whence the country is now called Gallicia; eaft from whom dwelt the Aftures, the country Afturia, chief town Afturica Augufta, Aftorga, where was held the conventus juridicus, or affizes of the Aftures.

In BŒTICA the most remarkable places were, CORDOBA, Cordova, the birth-place of the two Senecas, and of Lucan; where there ftill remains a noble mofque, built by Almanzer, five hundred and ten feet long, and four hundred and twenty feet broad, fupported by 800 pillars or more of alabaster, jafper, and black marble, now converted into a cathedral. Hifpalis, Seville; Italica, the native city of Trajan, Adrian, and the poet Silius Italicus; Cuftulo, the birth-place of Imilce, the wife of Hannibal, Liv. xxiv. 41. called Parnaffia and Caftalia, because it is faid to have been founded by a colony from Phocis, Sil. iii. 47. 391.; all which towns were fituate on the Batis, called by the Moors Guadi-al-Kiber, or the great river;

at

at the mouth of which is the island GADES, Cadiz, peopled by a colony from Tyre, Strab. iii. p. 169. &c. now the great emporium of Spanish commerce. On the ftraits, Carteia, called alfo Heraclea, near mount Calpe, now the rock of Gibraltar, belonging to Britain, oppofite to Abyla on the African fide; which two mountains were called Columna Herculis, the pillars of Hercules. North of this, not far from the fea, stood Munda, where Cæfar fought his laft battle, against the fons of Pompey and Labienus; Malaca, Malaga. The chief people in this divifion were the Turdetani.

In LUSITANIA, now Portugal, there were few places remarkable. On the Anas, Augufta Emerita, Merida; on the north fide of the frith of the Tagus, Olifippo, LISBON, &c. The principal ftates in this divifion were the Lufitani* and Vettones.

*The Lufitani, and fuch as poffeffed the weft and northern parts of Spain, are faid to have been rude and favage in their manners. Being without commerce, they made no ufe of money, but bartered one commodity for another, or for pieces of uncoined filver. The men wore black cloaths, as the Spaniards commonly do ftill, and the women coloured cloaths. They had very little wine; but generally used a beverage made of barley, called ZYTHON. Thofe condemned of capital crimes were thrown from fome rock; parricides were carried beyond the confines of their country, and toned to death. The fick were expofed, after the manner of the Ægyptians, in the public ways, that fuch as palled might give their advice, Strab. i. 155.

The first inhabitants of Spain, as of Gaul, Germany, and Britain, are thought to have been the Celta. The Phoenicians afterwards poffeffed feveral places on the fea-coaft. The Carthaginians, attracted by the gold and filver mines with which this country abounded, Strab. iii. 150. &c. Diodor. v. 35. &c. conquered the greatest part of it, chiefly under Hamilcar, fitnamed Barcas or Barca, the father of Hannibal, Polyb. ii. 1.; Dioder. xxv. 2. They were foon after expelled by the Romans, who retained the dominion of it during the existence of their empire in the weft. Spain was the firft province which the Romans poffeffed on the continent, and the last that was completely fubdued. The Cantabrians remained unconquered till the time of Auguftus, to whofe victorious arms they were obliged to submit, Liv. xxviii. 12. Tiberius held it in fubjection by three legions, Tacit. Annal. iv. 5.5 Strab. iii. 156. The inhabitants of hither Spain, when fubdued by Cato, were fa affected at being difarmed, that many of them laid violent hands on themfelves, Liv.

xxxiv. 17.

Under the government of Rome the Spaniards appear to have greatly cultivated both learning and commerce. Quintilian, Seneca, Martial, Silius, Lucan, Pomponius Mela, and others, were natives of this country. Strabo fpeaks of their exporting large quantities of corn, wine, and oil, the laft of an excellent quality; alfo wax, honey, pitch, vermilion, &c. But their chief commodity was wool. So great attention was paid to the breed of sheep, that a ram is faid to have fold for a talent, i. e. near .200 fterling, Strab. iii. 144. There is faid to have been more gold and filver, brais and iron, in Spain, than in any part of the then known world, b. 1.6. whence Silius calls it auriferaterra, iii. 401. and Horace ufes the maker of a Spanijo trading reffel, as a fynonymous term for a perfon of great riches, Od. iii. 6. 31. The gold and "ilver mines of Spain tailed in procefs of time; but what is fingular, that lofs has been more than compenfated to the people of this country by much richer mipes, which they have acquired in the new world.

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The