4. in obnixos] as they dash foreheads together and push. Vergil is probably imitating the μετώπων ολοέντα πλήγματα of Sophocles.

5. longus Olympus] 'the wide welkin'; Olympus is here equivalent to caelum longus from Homer's paкрos "Oνμжоs. [Dr. Kennedy translates the far-off sky,' to which I cannot agree.]

9. amores] 'the beloved object.' C. quotes Catullus (45, 1) Acmen Septimius suos amores tenens in gremio.

10. excessit] the preterite used to represent the action more vividly: 'and with eyes fixed on his stall he has quitted his ancestral domain.' For regnis, cp. 1, 24.

12. instrato] 'unlittered,' non-strato. The difficulty is that instrato is elsewhere used as participle of insterno, e.g. Lucr. 5, 987, instrata cubilia fronde. Some remove the comma after cubili and construct instrata with frondibus.

14-15. irasci in cornua] 'to throw his wrath into his 19 horn,' copied from the eis képas Ouμovμevos of Eurip. Bacch. 742, which refers perhaps partly to the sidelong glance along the horn when the bull is charging εἰς κέρας παρεμβλέπων, Eur. Hel. 1558. obnixus 'pushing against, butting.'

16-18. ad pugnam proludit] 'plays the prelude to the fight.'

signa movet] 'starts,' lit. 'moves his standard,' cp. G. 4, 108, castris vellere signa.

19-23. The charge of the bull galloping from a distance is compared to a wave seen white-crested out at sea, then gradually approaching, and at last breaking upon the beach with terrific roar. Vergil is again copying Homer [Il. 4, 424] πόντῳ μὲν τὰ πρῶτα κορύσσεται, αὐτὰρ ἔπειτα χέρσῳ ῥηγνύμενον μεγάλα βρέμει, κ.τ.λ. longius 'far out in mid-sea.' Dr. K. joins it with trahit.

20. sinum trahit] 'draws its heaving curve,' L. L. utque volutus 'and when it has rolled upon the shore' for volutus est, K.

21. ipso monte] 'scarce less than the very crag it dashes against.'

H

22-3. at ima...verticibus] 'while the lowest depths of the sea-water boil up in eddies.' subjectat 'keeps throwing up from beneath."

XVI.

[Vergil in the passage immediately preceding this extract had been describing the customs of hot countries, he now gives a description of a winter in northern regions. The particulars he knows only by hearsay, and it may be observed that Ovid when describing a hard winter at Tomi seems to draw upon Vergil's facts almost more than on his own experience.]

1-2. at non] 'but not so,' i.e. as I have been describing in hot countries.

Scythiae gentes] Scythia means to a Roman of Vergil's day all that vast district north of the Black Sea towards Serica in the east, and with a northern limit quite undefined. Cf. I. 21. Maeotia unda the palus Macotis or Sea of Azov. Aeschylus regarded it as on the northern extremity of the world.

Hister] the Danube, a rapid river and therefore 'muddy' from alluvial soil. Rhodope a range of mountains between the rivers Hebrus and Nestus. redit porrecta 'makes a long sweep round.' medium sub axem towards the south." Axis is used for the sky, cp. hesperius axis, Ov. M. 4, 214.

8. Cauri [or Cori] North-west winds.

9. tum] 'moreover.'

20 10-11. Neither at noon nor at evening.' equis stands for horses and chariot. This description of unbroken night comes from Homer (Od. 11, 15) who says of the Cimmerians, οὐδὲ ποτ ̓ αὐτοὺς ᾐέλιος φαέθων ἐπιδέρκεται ἀκτίνεσσιν. Perhaps some indistinct report of the continuous night of a Polar winter had reached Greece. pallentes umbras 'yellow gloom.' K.

12-13. crustae] 'flakes of ice.' ferratos orbes 'wheels with iron tires.'

15. sera]' bronze vessels.' vulgo 'frequently.'

16. indutae] 'when actually on.'

umida 'once liquid.' 17. lacunae] 'ponds and ditches.' totae, 'right through.' vertere, 'have been converted,' the active verb used intransitively.

19. non setius] 'equally,' i.e. the snow is as bad as the frost. sētius is the comparative of secus [sect-ius]. toto aere ninguit, 'the whole air is filled with snow.'

an ablative partly of place, partly of material.'

aere toto seems

20-21. The sheep perish, and the larger stock are half buried under the sudden fall of snow.

22. mole nova, 'with the fresh mass of snow,' not nova, as new-fallen snow, but as a sudden and novel encumbrance to the animals.

24. 'Nor do they drive the frightened beasts with the sewel of bright-coloured feathers.' formido is the technical word for what is still used in driving deer in deer parks, a string or line ornamented with feathers and called a sewel.' Dr. K. translates 'blancher,' referring to Halliwell's dictionary, who however defines 'blancher' as a man employed to keep deer in a wood,' Cp. Aen. 12, 750, cervum puniceae septum formidine pennae. puniceae, dyed with Tyrian (Phoenician) purple.'

25 cominus] 'at close quarters,' cum-manus.

28. ipsi]'the inhabitants.' This allusion to cave-dwellings is again probably not taken from any accurate knowledge.'

30. advolvere... dedere] are aorists, tenses of undefined time, to be rendered by the English present.

32. fermento] some fermented liquor made from corn more or less like our beer. Tacitus tells us that the Germans have for drink humor ex hordeo et frumento in quandam similitudinem vini corruptus [Germ. 23]. The dwellers in wine countries regarded beer drinkers with some contempt. The Argive king in Aeschylus [Supp. 930] tells the Egyptian herald, you will find the inhabitants of this land a manly race, not drinkers of barley-wine.' fermentum [fervimentum, ferveo] properly means that which causes fermentation, here the fermented liquor.

32. sorbis] 'sorb apples' or 'service berries.'

21

33. hyperboreo] 'northern,' as being beyond the north wind [vrèp Bopéas]. septem subjecta trioni by tmesis for septemtrioni. septemtrio is the Great Bear or Wain [ǎuaga]. septem, triones'a team of oxen,' a terendo dicti.

34. Rhipaei] from the montes Rhipaei 'Ural mountains.'

XVII.

[A plague infecting all manner of beasts.

The oxen die at

the plough, struck by this sudden death, which no excesses of theirs have earned.]

1-2. fumans] 'smoking with the toil.' concidit the force of this compound is that of a sudden collapse: to 'fall all of a heap.'

6-8.

Imitated from Lucr. 2, 36:

Nec tenerae salices atque herbae vere vigentes

fluminaque illa queunt summis labentia ripis

oblectare animum.

8. electro] is either 'amber' [as in Ecl. 8, 54, pinguia corticibus sudant electra myricae], or, as some think, a metal compounded with silver, ἤλεκτρον.

9-10. solvuntur] 'relax,' 'grow flabby.' stupor urget the film of death closes his languid eyes.' devexo pondere, 'and down to the ground sinks his neck and droops its heavy bulk.' The neck has grown too heavy to hold up.

11. benefacta] The services he has done for men by working for them.

12. Massica] Mons Massicus in north-west Campania, famous for its vintage. Cp. 11, 8.

13. epulae repostae] 'banquets of several courses,' K. Vergil elsewhere [G. 4, 378; Aen. 7, 134; 8, 175] uses reponere only of the wine put on after the banquet. Some take it here only as = positae, 'placed on the table,' others as recherchés. The general meaning is that they had not to reproach themselves with intemperance as a man might.

15-16. exercita cursu] 'ever flowing.' cura, anxiety,' such as deprives men of sleep, and it is inferred arising from unwholesome desires, ambitions, etc.

XVIII.

[The mode of taking a swarm of bees, by tinkling instruments 22 and medicated hives.]

1-2. reclusit] The winter is supposed to contract and close up the sky with cold clouds, the summer to relax aud reveal it.

4-5. metunt flores] 'make their harvest on the flowers.' Words are applied to bees metaphorically from the employments of men. leves libant 'lightly sip,' i.e. they merely skim the water. hinc i.e. from the flowers. From them they make the bee-bread which both feeds the young and serves to keep the hive warm, for they use it to stop up the chinks.

nescio qua dulcedine laetae] 'glad with I know not what of rapture,' 'with some instinctive pleasure.'

9. suspexeris] 'look up and behold.'

10. trahi] 'trailed along.' The wind prevents the swarm keeping close and compact.

11. contemplator] 'observe them,' a word Vergil uses to introduce a set of precepts [G. 1, 7].

12. huc] on the tree to which you observe them going, to prevent their straying further.

13. 'Pounded balm and the wax-flower's common blade.' The cerintha grows wild in Italy.

14. cymbala matris] cymbals used in the worship of Cybele, the Great Mother, or Mother of the Gods, whose rites were celebrated by the Corybantes with drums, cymbals, horns, and dances.

16. cunabula] 'cradle,' appropriate to young bees. more suo seems to refer to the bees' habit of taking up their residence in the first convenient place.