BRITISH EMPIRE.

ENGLAND.

All the training of schoolboys in England of a military or semimilitary character is conducted by outside agencies. The only attempt to introduce this training into the regular work of the schools. was made in 1906, the date of Haldane's Territorial Forces Act. The bill included a provision for compulsory military drill in schools, but owing to determined opposition, both in Parliament and in the country, this provision of the bill was rejected.

The voluntary organizations enroll only a small proportion of the youths of England, but in a certain sense their importance is incommensurate with mere numbers. This is especially true in reference to the cadet corps, which have been in existence for over 55 years and have become part of the educational system of the country in almost the same degree as cricket and football teams. It was observed that a surprisingly large number of young men enlisted in Kitchener's army had previous military drill in cadet corps, which proved of great advantage in their hurried preparation for active service.

The organization of English cadet corps is well known; these bodies still continue to be a model for similar organizations in the United States. The cadet corps were first founded in 1860 and in the course of a few years spread rapidly throughout the country. A revival of the movement occurred in 1906, directly following the defeat of the provision for compulsory military training in schools, mentioned above. This revival was especially noticeable in secondary schools, where many new battalions were formed.

The European war stimulated a new interest in the matter. The question of compulsory military training in schools was again raised, and various suggestions were advanced as to the most expedient methods of organizing this work. No decisive steps, however, have been taken thus far.

In recent discussions of the subject the trend of opinion seems to be against cadet corps and in favor of organizations that entail less expense and, at the same time, are capable of attracting larger numbers of pupils. It is pointed out that the cost of uniforms, the difficulties connected with the selection of a proper kind of rifles, the want of officers, and other conditions prevailing in the cadet-corps

system tend to limit membership in the corps to an exclusive group of students. To overcome these difficulties nonuniformed corps have been organized. The boys drill with wooden dummy rifles under the command of teachers. For target practice small-caliber rifles are used. Infantry drill is conducted in accordance with the latest army regulations. The chief advantage of this system lies in the fact that all pupils of a given school participate in the work of the corps, and the drills form a part of the ordinary school program.

The first nonuniformed corps was established in 1881 at the Hackney Downs school and has been conducted with considerable success down to the present time.

Junior divisions of officers' training corps are organized in many schools. These courses correspond to similar courses of reserve officers' training corps in the United States. They have proved very useful during the war.

Among organizations not avowedly military, but devoted to exercises of a military or semimilitary character, the most popular in England are boys' brigades, church-lads' brigades, and boy scouts.

Boys' brigades were founded originally in Glasgow, in 1883, by W. A. Smith. The object of the brigades is to develop in the young generation a Christian manliness by means of physical training and discipline. The brigades exercise in military movements and gymnastics, participate in summer camps, and attend religious services and classes. The movement gradually spread to the English colonies and the United States; at present the estimated number of boys in the brigades in the English-speaking countries is over 100,000.

Church-lads' brigades are similar organizations confined to the Anglican communion.

The boy-scout movement, originated in 1908 by Maj. Gen. BadenPowell, has been adopted by almost every civilized nation. Although the movement is nonmilitary, it is generally admitted that the qualities of character and mind developed in the boys by the scout system are those highly valued in military service and indispensable in at least one branch of that service, namely, scouting and patrolling.

AUSTRALIA.

The "Defense Acts" adopted in succession during the period from 1903 to 1914 form the basis of the military organization of the Commonwealth. The military instruction given in schools is part of the system of national defense and as such is fully provided for and regulated by the acts.

By the latest measures all male inhabitants of Australia who are British subjects and have resided in the Commonwealth for six months must serve in the citizen's army. The compulsion extends

over the entire period of training, which is divided into three cycles as follows:

(a) From 12 to 14 years of age, in the junior cadets. (b) From 14 to 18 years of age, in the senior cadets. (c) From 18 to 26 years of age, in the citizen force. Junior cadets.-Junior cadet training, lasting for two years, consists of 90 hours each year, and begins on the 1st of July in the year in which the boy reaches the age of 12 years. This period of training aims at developing the cadet's physique. It consists principally of physical training for at least 15 minutes each school day and elementary marching drill. The following subjects are also taught: Miniature rifle shooting; swimming; running exercises in organized games; first aid; and (in schools in naval training areas) mariners' compass and elementary signaling. The junior cadets are not organized as military bodies and do not wear uniform. The Commonwealth Government maintains a staff of special instructors of physical training, by whom classes are held for school-teachers in all districts of the Commonwealth in order to increase the science and proficiency of the latter in the military subjects they are to teach in their schools. The inspectors of schools supervise the training and inspect the cadets on behalf of the defense department.

Senior cadets.-Senior cadet training lasting for four years begins on the 1st of July of the year in which the boy reaches the age of 14 years. On entering this part of the course each cadet must present himself for registration and show that he has completed the necessary training in his thirteenth and fourteenth years. The senior cadet course consists of 40 drills each year, of which 4 are classed as whole days of not less than four hours, 12 as half days of not less than two hours, the remainder being night drills of not less than one hour. This allotment of time may be modified to meet special conditions, but the minimum efficient service required of senior cadets is invariably 64 hours per annum. Registration of every male born in 1894 and subsequently, and who has resided for six months in the Commonwealth, must be effected in the first two months of the calendar year in which he completes his fourteenth year.

The four years' work covers the foundation necessary for any arm of the service. It comprises marching, handling of arms, musketry, physical drill, first aid, guards and sentries, tactical training as a company in elementary field work, and elementary battalion drill. Discipline is strongly inculcated.

On the 1st of July of the year in which he completes his eighteenth year the cadet enters the period of adult service and is assigned to the arm of the service in accordance with his preference or special qualifications.

Enforcement of the compulsion.-The training, both in junior and senior cadets, is compulsory for all boys except aliens and nonEuropeans. Theological students are exempt from training. In some sparsely populated districts the compulsion is not applied as rigidly as in other districts because of undue hardships that it would impose.

Employers, parents, and guardians may not, under a heavy penalty, prevent any employee, son, or ward who is in training from rendering service; penalties are also imposed upon cadets evading service. Penalties take the form of money fines or detention in military custody under enforced training and discipline. Evasion is also punished by ineligibility for any employment in the public service of the Commonwealth. Children's courts are used where possible for the prosecution of cadets under the age of 16 years.

While in training senior cadets and soldiers are required to satisfy certain requirements of efficiency and are tested every year. Those failing to pass in the annual test must do an extra year's training. Each senior cadet must pass four annual tests of efficiency.

Instructors.-Both cadets and enlisted men are trained by a military instructional staff consisting of Army officers and noncommissioned and warrant officers. This staff was organized immediately after the enactment of the law, and the officers and noncommissioned officers selected as instructors were put through a short course of special training.

Operation of the system.-A slight amount of opposition has been manifested to the system. This, however, was principally for personal or religious considerations. It is claimed that the scheme, both before its inception and since its successful inauguration, has had the support of leading statesmen of all political views, as well as the vast majority of the citizens of the Commonwealth. Much interest and willingness is shown on the part of the youths in training, which is evidenced by a great amount of voluntary work done, such as athletic, gymnastic, target practice, etc. A marked improvement has quite lately become apparent in the general conduct and bearing of the youths of Australia, and it is claimed that this is the effect of the system of universal training. As a result of inquiries made in 1914, the police authorities in all the States concurred in the opinion that the behavior of the youths who are subject to the training is vastly improved. It is stated that, both mentally and morally as well as physically, the benefits are very definite, and that the principal effects of a beneficial nature are increased self-respect, diminution of juvenile cigarette smoking, and "larrikinism," and generally a tendency toward a sense of responsibility and a desire to become good citizens.

In regard to opposition to the system, the percentage of prosecutions to number liable for training in 1914 was 5.38. This figure