Wooden buildings, fences, telegraph poles, etc., are drawn in brown.

Brick buildings with a light red border, stone buildings with a heavy red border, all filled with a light flat tint of red. Masonry bridges, stone fences, railroads, etc., in red. Wire fences, metal bridges, and water in blue.

ochre.

Dry runs by broken and triple-dotted blue lines,
Earth and sand in yellow ochre.

Cultivated land ruled with brown, over a flat tint of yellow

Trees, grass, and vegetation in green.

Rocks in brown.

Contours in red continuous lines of constant thickness, except every fifth, which is sometimes made heavier.

Lettering is usually done in red.

HILL SHADING-A method much used in the past for shading hills was by short strokes, called hachures, drawn either perpendicular or parallel to the steepest slope, the thickness and number of which were regulated by a scale of shade according to the degree of slope, the steepest being darkest. As it has the effect of covering up details and was difficult to properly produce, it is being superseded by lead shading, which is more easily and rapidly executed and does not destroy details.

In lead shading the object is to produce a transparent shade, darkest where the ground is steepest. Its purpose is to give body and expression to the map. In this, rays of light are supposed to be vertical; hence horizontal surfaces are lightest or white. On slopes, the rays striking obliquely, the illumination is less bright, decreasing with the increase of the slope, being least for angles of 35° or upwards; hence slopes are shaded, the shade being denser as the slope is steeper.

How produced. Lead dust from a soft pencil is scraped on a piece of paper, lumps being carefully avoided. The map is placed on a smooth hard surface. With a piece of chamois skin folded into a firm point some of the lead is taken up and applied to the map by sweeping movements in the direction.

of contours, endeavoring to produce broadly the desired effect as regards depth of shade, the first application of lead being on the portions to be the darkest, representing the steepest slopes, fading away to the lighter portions. Care must be taken to avoid hill-tops and parts which are to remain light.

When the broad or general effect of shade has been produced, a fresh point is folded and the map rubbed with it, forcing the lead into the grain of the paper, blending the different shades and removing any mottled appearance; a fresh point is again folded, the blending continued, and so on until the desired effect is produced. Some portions, where very steep, may now require to be again darkened with more lead and other portions brightened with a pencil eraser and again blended. Very dark shades cannot be rubbed too hard without removing too much of the lead. The shading of abrupt rocky cliffs, etc., may be finished with a pencil. To bring out a small portion of high light, a hole of the required shape is cut in a piece of paper, held over the place, and the lead removed with an eraser.

Exaggerating the contrast of light and shade to produce relief at the expense of truth is to be avoided. Water-sheds may, however, be a little lighter than contiguous water-courses. Colorsshould be applied after the shading. The shading which has been unavoidablycarried beyond the border can be removed by placing a piece of paper with the edge on the dividing line and using an eraser.

Lead shading may be fixed with a spray of gum arabic

water.

CHAPTER XIX.

FINISHING MAPS.

LETTERING.-The final appearance of a well-drawn map may be anything but pleasing, as a result of poor or unsuitable lettering. The letters should be simple, neat, and of a size proportioned to the scale of the map, their position, and the objects to which they refer. Fancy letters are out of plaee and script should never be employed. When lettering on a map or sketch will not obscure valuable details, it is to be preferred to reference numbers, which are sometimes necessary, however, in conjunction with marginal notes or a separate report.

Styles used. The letters which are most useful are the GOTHIC, ROMAN CAPITALS, Roman lower-case, ITALIC CAPITALS, Italic lower-case. A very common style of lettering maps and other drawings is styled "Round Writing," in which all lines are made with a stub pen thus:

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q

R S T U V W X Y Z.

a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w 1234567890.

xyz.