Supposing him to be qualified to teach, the teacher undoubtedly is himself the proper judge of the best way to lead along the path of education the pupils under his charge at the particular time. It can easily be demonstrated that the Department's inspection does not gauge the merit of the teacher's work, nor reveal how far he has made the best use of his opportunity with the material passing through his hands. Two illustrations will make the matter clear; they need not be regarded as anything more than typical of what can happen under the present system. Teacher A., knowing that Inspector B. believes that a detailed knowledge of the constituents of the atmosphere, including those most recently discovered, are very important, and that the percentages of these constituents to decimals ought to be known by children, gives an "object lesson" thereon, writing upon the board all the said constituents, with their percentages, and such supposed important facts in regard to the atmosphere as he thinks will be appreciated by the Inspector. He then demands that his pupils shall memorise them. At the inspection by Mr. B., it is found that the children have memorised, say, fifty facts, including the decimals; this the result, say, of two lessons on the same thing. Mr. A. is awarded 100 per cent., Inspector B. going away highly gratified at the success in scientific teaching. Later, the same teacher, having really learnt, let us suppose, something of physics and chemistry, repeats the lesson on "the atmosphere," actually demonstrating, with such simple apparatus as he can command, some of the physical laws of gases, the nature of its constituents (by removing its water, carbon dioxide, oxygen, etc.), and also the actuality of the atmospheric pressure and its consequences. This lesson makes so much demand on the available time that reference to some element-argon let us imagine-and the decimals are omitted, the children, however, learning realistically and thoroughly something of the constituents and properties of the atmosphere, and how these can be actually proved. At a second visit of Inspector B, the atmosphere being again taken as a subject of examination, it is found that a very large number of standard questions (50) as supposed, and the percentages elicit no response. Teacher A. has his new effort rewarded by a low marking, and the expression of disapprobation, and it is also possible, under the system of the State, for this result to prejudice his career.

Or in Latin say, a teacher takes the first 30 exercises of a "Via Latina," and by thoroughly drilling his pupils gets 100 per cent. On a second occasion the same teacher, having taken them over a more extended course, giving a far broader and better idea of that language, but of course leaving many things in abeyance on account of the range of work, finds his work is deemed poor because the children cannot answer every question. Thus, with better teaching, he may get inferior marking.

Such cases can easily be multiplied. As a matter of fact, the literary way of learning science, which is in vogue in our system, lends itself to such results as are typified in the first illustration, and the mode of examination to such consequences as are typified in the second. The unimportant is often magnified out of all proportion to its merit, critical facts are often wholly ignored, and to obtain good marks subjects are restricted. Moreover, mere memory knowledge is cultivated.

The morale of the system is moreover obviously bad. The tendency to develope dexterity in meeting the special demands of individual Inspectors, by the mere training of the memory within a limited field, so as to escape the consequences of a bad report, does not end merely with the teacher, but affects the pupils too. They see something of what is going on, and cannot be favourably influenced thereby; and further, their normal education is sacrificed to satisfy the Examiner's demands.

In a normal system, the Inspector, while exercising a sort of general oversight, is constituted the professional adviser and friend of the teacher, and devotes his energies to helping the latter in his educational method. His visit to the school, instead of being an occasion for some trepidation, may be looked upon with pleasure, not only by the excellent but also by the indifferent teacher; for, after all, the object of an Education Department is to make the best possible use of the teacher as an element in the educational machinery, for the benefit of the children concerned, and for the ultimate good of the public; and to do this it must play upon his moral nature through sympathy.

The present system of inspection-examination involves a sacrifice of the educational efficiency of the school to the meeting of the Inspector's demands for ready responses to his questions. Since the value of the teacher's work is practically determined by the number of questions that are answered by his scholars,

and

and since also the teacher's official position and emoluments depend upon the result, the whole scheme of teaching has to be framed to meet, not the demands of a rational system of education, but the Inspector's anticipations.

Children are drilled in replies that involve mere memory response, for this is the easiest way to ensure results. Obviously there is no real interest in such work and no really educative element therein.1

The whole matter reveals the importance of the proper education of our teachers and of our Inspectors. The only correct judge of profitable attention to the lessons is the teacher himself; he is, in the nature of the case, the only person qualified to estimate the progress of his pupils.

What is most serious in the matter is this, that teachers need be loyal to the interests of their pupils, but under our defective régime they are compelled to study self-interest. This régime is, to a large extent, a consequence of a general want of confidence in the teachers, which in its turn is the outcome of the employment of pupil-teachers. Where no doubt exists as to the education and professional qualification of teachers, the whole situation is changed. The above defects do not appear in Continental systems. There is no such thing as special preparation to meet the contingencies of examinations.

16. Defect in School Equipments.-The system of education is reflected, among other things, in the pædagogical equipment of its schools, and, as already stated, this is defective. To this day the State Department of New South Wales has not an ideally equipped primary school, neither has it in connection with its training school a model pædagogical equipment, nor an educational library, such as would give teachers during their training some notion of the normal outfit of a good school. This defect limits the teaching, and, what is still more adverse, the ideals of the teacher. The educational equipments of schools in Switzerland are an "object lesson" in the proper method of fitting out a school for its educational work.

The opportunities in Sydney for teachers to ascertain what is being done in other parts of the world are also wholly insufficient. They have no rendezvous in each centre where they may have an opportunity of acquiring special information about the latest developments of any branch of their calling in which they take a special interest. Reference may be made to Chapters LI and LVII for a more adequate idea of the matter. It will suffice here to say that in Europe they have the advantages referred to.

The system of New South Wales is further defective in regard to the small attention paid to hygiene.

In the schools of those countries which have given systematic attention to this subject, and have consequently provided proper seating for the pupils in which their backs are suitably supported, their bodies erect, and at their desks they are in a natural position-there is no difficulty in maintaining such a posture as would satisfy any disciplinarian. Every lad who has sat in a New South Wales' "public school" and has retained any memory of his experiences, will remember that the "sitting-up straight" and affecting to look profoundly interested in what was going on, was no light task. Of the morality of the affectation little need be said. [Chap. XVI, sec. 5].

The sooner we recognise that, when properly seated, the discipline of position presents no difficulty, and that a child comfortably seated has a far better opportunity of concentrating his mind upon his work, the better for the efficiency of our schools. That is the way to really secure efficiency and to dismiss an affectation of discipline, which is worse than worthless. The consequences of bad hygienic conditions will be

referred to hereinafter.

17. Conclusion as to New South Wales' System.—The system of education in New South Wales indicates, by its scheme of training its teachers, by its absence of scientific and literary equipment in its training schools, by its curriculum, by its treatment of the subjects in its curriculum, by its lack of proper educational equipment in its schools, by its inattention to proper hygiene, that it needs to be radically reformed; and one of the most important elements of the reform will be the better education and training of its teachers.

The curriculum question will now be discussed.

IV.

An illustration will explain what is ment. Suppose for example that the lesson is geography. The towns on the rivers are, let us suppose, required: The teac ier says to his class, Repeat after me-Murrumbidgee: Gundagai, Wagga Wagga, Narrandera, Hay. Murray: Albury, Echuca," etc. This is repeated several times. Such repetition ensures a response to the question, "What are the towns on the Murrumbidgee," etc. Being absolutely void of human interest, it is quite thoughtless an i exucationally worthless; yet it would secure marks in an inspectorial examination

IV.

THE CURRICULUM IN NEW SOUTH WALES SCHOOLS.

[G. H. KNIBBS.]

1. Introduction.-When one compares the curriculum of the ordinary primaryschool ("public-school") of New South Wales with that of the primary schools of the majority of other countries, class by class—that is, according to the age of the children therein-it becomes evident that we have much leeway to make good. If, further, regard be had to the particular way in which the curriculum is developed in each case, and to the more thorough education of the teachers in other countries, the recognition of this fact intensifies in significance. We are not on a par with England, and yet English teachers who have studied European methods, recognising how much need there is for reform there, are strenuously labouring to bring it about. A fortiori, the need of reform is more urgent here.

Two things require thorough reform, viz., the System of Education as previously stated, and the curriculum and its treatment. The character of the reform of the system has now been partly dealt with, viz., in the preceding division, but will be again referred to. In this division the curriculum must be discussed, subject by subject.

The elements in the curriculum that stand in particular need of improvement are natural history, physical science, mathematics, languages, and the subjects previously mentioned.

The characteristic difference between our school education and that of Europe and America, inheres in the greater importance which the latter attach to the formative elements; with us the curriculum, is practically, merely informative.

It is recognised by modern educationists that the important question is not how much is learnt, but how thoroughly each thing is learnt, and what is its educative value. The notion that subjects of instruction can be satisfactorily taught by any one whose acquaintance with them is limited to the grade of the required teaching has disappeared. Not only must every element in a curriculum be taught with a wide outlook in the subject itself, and a recognition of its relation to other subjects, but also in such a way as to truly give it educative value-that is, the teaching must lead to apperception.

Hence, the need of pædagogic psychology, a subject wholly neglected in our scheme of training teachers. The question of the defects in this training have been partly, and will hereinafter be more fully, dealt with.

Restricting this consideration to the curriculum, it may be said that the two most important matters requiring attention in regard thereto are reform in the teaching of individual subjects, and the development of type-programmes for the different classes of schools. In treating these programmes, great attention should be paid to intuitive methods, to the co-operation of the children, especially in regard to their own thought. The teaching must ensure apperception, it must develope original thinking power, and it must educate-not merely instruct.

2. Kindergarten.-The introduction of kindergarten is important. A commencement has already been made in the schools of the Kindergarten Union. That in the public schools belongs rather to the transition from kindergarten to the primary school. It is good so far as it goes, but is not proper kindergarten, and misses some of the most important clements, viz., freedom, and full opportunity for awakening the children's self-expression. Further, there are not a sufficient number of teachers who have studied kindergarten thoroughly, and have command of the psychology of the subject. Kindergartners in the United Kingdom, in Europe, and in America are thoroughly trained [Chap. IV, secs. 4, 5]; that will be necessary here also.

The transition-period from kindergarten to the primary school should be between the ages of 6 and 7, and every effort, therefore, should be made to afford the opportunity of attending kindergarter schools earlier than this; it should be organised on the principles indicated in Chapter IV. The school-rooms for kindergarten must allow of free movement. To have fixed-desks, as in the schools of the

Department

Department of Public Instruction, is to make true kindergarten an impossibility. To lose sight of the element of freedom is to miss the whole meaning of kindergarten, for this condition is a sine qua non in developing as much as possible the individuality and originality of the child. The occupations and instruction of the children should be on Froebelian lines.

In the chapter referred to, an account of the theory of kindergarten, of the kindergarten work seen by the Commissioners, and also of the spread of kindergarten throughout the entire world, is given.

The importance of kindergarten can hardly be overstated. It is the basis of a good educational development, its formative value being very high indeed. It awakens good will in the children; its moral influence (in the hands of the right class of teachers, properly trained) is excellent-it prepares the children to think vigorously and with originality; it has engendered-if it has been developed properly-that mental habit which transforms perception into apperception.

There is no doubt that good kindergartens are the initial and one of the most important steps in a good system of popular education. The Commissioners' conclusions are given later.

3. General in regard to Curriculum.-The subjects referred to by special chapters in this Report are:

Drawing [XXI], Ancient and Modern Languages [XXII], Geometry [XXIII], Geography [XXIV], Arithmetic and Algebra [XXV], Natural Science [XXVI, Physical Culture and Gymnastics [XVII], and Manual Training and Šloyd [XVIII and XIX].

Ethical subjects are dealt with in chapters on Ethical and Religious Instruction, the Education of the Will, and are touched upon also in other chapters. If education in New South Wales is to be comparable to that in Europe and America, considerable improvement will have to be made in regard to the teaching of all these subjects. The aim of the several chapters has been to exhibit the nature of the teaching in other countries, so as to shew both that improvement is necessary, and the direction it must take.

It should be stated that no spasmodic inclusion of new subjects in a curriculum, nor sudden adoption of new methods in teaching, is real reform, and it is important that we should not fall into the delusion that a few superficial changes will bring our work into line with European education. Reform involves an absolute change in the education of the teacher, in his knowledge of the history and theory of teaching, of the psychological method, as well as a great improvement in his knowledge of subject-matter, by acquiring it systematically. It is to be remembered, also, that University education is, as previously stated, not in itself a substitute, and at the present time the University of Sydney is not equipped for the training of teachers. It cannot provide special education adapted to the requirements of primary teachers, or equal to that provided by the great Normal Schools of Europe, nor has it a chair of pædagogy.

Before passing to the details in the curricula of the Primary Schools, a few general matters may be referred to.

4. Moral Elements in Elucation.-From the standpoint of modern education, one of the most serious defects of our system is the insufficient attention paid to the elements of character-building. This is shown in inadequate training of teachers, in the absence of definite plan for influencing character, and in the details of the system. Character-building involves, in ascending order of importance, the consideration of physical culture, civic instruction, those elements of education which are concerned in the education of the Will, and with ethical and religious instruction. The Department of Public Instruction has published no clear expression of the official view as a systematic guide for its teaching staff in regard to these matters, and everything is practically left to the individual teachers. the absence of a type-programme such as is used in other countries, there can be no adequate system of dealing with such subjects. Nor is there, in the training of the school-teacher, any treatment of that part of educational theory that would give form to the ethical teaching, or explain the bearing of psychology and ethics in dealing with the child-mind, and in endeavouring to secure a normal development. To

In

To understand the continental position, and its moral force, account must be taken of the fact that the ethically tonic effect of physical culture gymnastic is well appreciated [Chap. XVII, sec. 6]; manual training is viewed from the ethical standpoint [Chap. XIX, sec. 2]; the special instruction in ethics or religion is systematised; and all is dealt with by teachers specially educated and trained [Chap. XV, sec. 3].

The value of civic instruction has been recognised in Europe, and recently in America. It is felt that, to intelligently discharge one's duty in a community, a definite idea of its Constitution and the laws to which its members are subject is essential. And, further, a conception of personal responsibility in relation to the affairs of the State and the Empire is necessary to create an intelligent patriotism, in contradistinction to a mere "jingoism" and to that vulgar and unthinking national prejudice which is not without serious danger.

5. Co-ordination in Teaching.-In modern educational method, subjects are taught, as far as possible, in the light of their mutual relationship. This may be called the "natural method" in contradistinction to the empirical, and to the logical or analytical, which tend to dissociate each subject from every other. Although for certain purposes it is necessary to analyse human knowledge, and to classify it under subject divisions, it does not follow that that process is sound from the point of view of pædagogy; on the contrary, the psychology upon which modern educational method is founded has shewn that the more intimately subjects are interrelated in teaching, the more fully is apperception developed thereby, and the more thorough does education become. Thus, for example, if drawing, geometry, arithmetic, geography, subjects which have inherently most intimate relationships, are treated as far as possible simultaneously, and always as mutually helpful, they will be far better taught. In the several chapters dealing with such subjects, attention has been drawn to the matter. Here, again, the necessity for a more thorough education of the teacher is apparent in order that he may appreciate the full significance of what is here merely suggested.

6. Logical and Pædagogical Order in the Development of Subjects.-By analysis, all subjects of knowledge may be exhibited under a scheme of development, passing from what may be regarded as elementary forms to those which are more complex. Both in England and in this country the greater part of the teaching has been based upon this logical development, a consequence of our failure to attend to the contributions of psychology to the theory of pædagogy. For example, in arithmetic, the first four operations are learnt in succession instead of simultaneously; similarly in regard to the differential calculus, integral calculus, and differential equations. This method is, however, unsatisfactory from a pædagogical point of view. Instead of instruction being given in this way, it should, as far as possible, traverse each subject as it were from end to end, dealing initially with the most elementary facts or principles and developing them by recapitulation with inclusion of more complex material. [Chap. III, secs. 11, 12]. This general principle of methodology totally transforms teaching, and undoubtedly makes it vastly better. It demands, however, higher qualification on the part of the teacher, and a keen appreciation of how far, with individual children, it is desirable to push a subject in its initial and developing stages. This method of extending a child's knowledge in any subject over as great a range as he can understand, and of early familiarising his mind with its fundamental ideas and principles, goes far to remove its later difficulties, for the ideas introduced into his thought germinate and develope of themselves.

The pædagogical order also differs from the logical in taking more account of the psychical elements, viz., interest, etc., and of the moral and intellectual influence of the sphere of ideas created by the teacher in the child mind [Chap. III, secs. 9, 10, 13]; a fact revealing the need of psychology in the training of teachers. The mere reading of a book or two on this subject is, however, not sufficient. What is wanted is exercise in applying its principles in teaching. This application is what makes the practice in a European or American seminary so valuable [Chaps. XXXVIII, XXXIX], a matter already dealt with. (See sec. 12 of the preceding division.)