and any other ladies who were present departed to their own apartments.

The men drank long and heavily; and the cups or glasses from which they drank were made with the bottoms rounded, so as to compel the guests to keep them in their hands till they were empty. The usual drink was either mead or ale, but, in the houses of the rich, wine was not unknown. It was held to be disgraceful to leave the table as long as the drinking lasted, and often the result was drunkenness and quarrelling, and even blood-shed. Here is the old definition of drunkenness, which is worth quoting: "This," says the English law, "is drunkenness, when the state of the mind is changed, the tongue stammers, the eyes are disturbed, the head is giddy, and pain follows." To atone for this, fasts of various lengths were enjoined. There were places, like our taverns or ale-houses, where liquors were sold, and priests were forbidden either to eat or drink at such places.

The English displayed considerable variety as as well as vanity in their dress. As they became more civilised, so they paid more attention to the adornment of their persons. From some old drawings it appears that the women wore long loose robes reaching to the ground, and long loose sleeves. Upon their head may be seen a hood or veil, which, falling down in front, was wrapped round the neck. The ladies wore necklaces and bracelets, besides rings and other ornaments. The hair was elaborately dressed, and often the cheeks were painted. wore linen and woollen tunics which

The men

reached to the knees, and over them were cloaks, lined with the fur of the beaver or the fox. The men had also a fondness for finery; and we read of silk garments woven with golden eagles or set with gems. At this period the English shaved their beards, but

Around

their necks the men had sometimes gold and precious stones; and men of wealth had expensive bracelets on their arms, and rings on their fingers.

The chief amusements of the English were those connected with hunting and hawking. Hunting was forbidden on Sundays, but every man was allowed to hunt in the woods and the fields that were his own, so long as he did not interfere with the king's hunting. The English Calendar for September represents a boar-hunt; a wood is seen containing boars; one man is on foot with a spear, while another appears to be blowing a horn. From the same Calendar for October we can see that hawking was then the favourite sport. Hawks and falcons were much prized, and were valuable presents; in fact we may say that hawking was a royal sport.

But besides field sports, the English had many indoor amusements. At their cheerful meetings it was the custom for all to sing in turn, and, for this purpose, the harp was passed round to each guest. Alfred, we know, was a cunning player on the harp; and we read of gleemen, musicians, and harpers very frequently in the old writings of this time. Dancing was also practised, and various games of hazard, such as dice, were played.

As may be imagined, the number of trades was not large, and the arts practised were few. Commerce was not considerable, hence the merchants and traders were not numerous. The chief trades were those connected with war and agriculture; and so perhaps the most important of all artisans was the smith. In every village there was a smithy, with the tools for making all kinds of iron-ware. Goldsmiths, silversmiths, and coppersmiths are frequently mentioned at this period. After the

smith in importance came the carpenter and shoemaker, and then followed the baker, the fisherman, and the furrier.

Even the clergy were sometimes skilful handicraftsmen, and we read of some being smiths, bellmakers, and workers in glass. Abbot Benedict, in the seventh century, brought over from France some skilful workmen, who taught the English the art of making glass for windows, lamps, and drinking vessels. The arts of weaving, embroidery, and dyeing were practised; and in some cases we are led to believe that the English ladies excelled with the needle and in gold embroidery. It was the custom of the English kings to make presents of rich garments, vases, bracelets, and rings to their courtiers, and of great lords doing the same to their knights. We may, therefore, be sure that the trades for making these articles must have given employment to many people.

Perhaps enough has now been said on the mode of life among our forefathers. It is an interesting subject, and one which we must know something about in order to understand the life of Alfred. In later chapters more will be written about the merchants and sailors, the travelling and hospitality of the English; but we must now resume the narrative of our hero's life, and proceed with the story of his conflict with the Danes.

CHAPTER XII.

THE DANES IN WESSEX.

IT is now time to resume the story of the Danish conquests in England. In previous chapters we have read of the conquest of Northumbria, and then of Mercia and East Anglia. These three kingdoms had succumbed, one after the other, to the superior skill and discipline of the Danish hordes. Now, after a short interval, in which the Danes rested only to gather new strength, the full fury of the invaders was to descend on the kingdom of Wessex and its people. Would that kingdom present a bold front to the Danes ? Would its people fight for their homes to the death? Above all, would Wessex and its people find brave leaders ready to lead their followers on to victory?

These were questions that must have been often asked, and anxiously discussed, before the advent of the Danes in the realm of the West-Saxon king. Now, one thousand years after, we can answer those questions without any difficulty, for we know from all accounts that the West-Saxons were united as one man in opposing the enemy. We know that they showed the greatest bravery and courage in fighting, and that they manifested those qualities of dogged perseverance and of sheer obstinacy, that have stood our English race in such good stead through all the ten centuries since this time of trial.