CHAPTER XI.

ENGLISH LIFE IN ALFRED'S DAYS.

BEFORE proceeding further with the story of Alfred, it will be interesting to consider the manners and customs of our English forefathers, and to learn some-. thing of their mode of life. Speaking generally, the English of those days were not a learned or a religious people; but they had a strong sense of justice, and a deeply rooted love of liberty and freedom. They were an industrious folk, loving the home life much as Englishmen cherish it to-day

The houses of the people were generally small and inconvenient; and even in the higher ranks there was not much attempt at architecture in constructing their dwellings. At their first coming to our land, the whole of an English family would live and sleep in one room, which was known as the Common Hall. After a time, sleeping rooms were added, and bowers or sitting rooms for the women. The sitting rooms were scantily furnished with benches and stools of a heavy and rude pattern. The walls were hung with tapestry, woven with figures of birds or other animals. These hangings were necessary to keep out the draughts, for the wood-work of the rooms was badly constructed.

Trestles were often used, but sometimes we read of very costly tables of gold and silver; some costing as much as three hundred pounds. Candle

sticks of various sorts were used, some of bone, others of silver and gold. Hand-bells are said to have been in use, especially in monasteries, while silver mirrors are also mentioned. There are some old drawings of English beds, from which it appears that both the head and bottom of the bed were boarded, and the pillows look as if made of plaited straw.

For bed coverings they used bear-skins and goatskins, while, around the bed, curtains were drawn.

The English were a very convivial people, and for their food they used many expensive articles, such as silver and gold cups, basins, and dishes. These, of course, would only be found in the houses of the wealthy; but in the houses of the lower orders we read of cups of bone, brazen dishes, and vessels of

wood and iron. Horns, as drinking vessels, were much used at table; and some of them were beautifully worked with `gold and silver. There is a curiously carved horn still preserved in York Minster. This was made in those far-off times, and it deserves notice for its fine workmanship.

In Bede's time glass vessels were little used, but he mentions lamps of glass. Towards the period of the Norman Conquest glass became more used in domestic life. Gold and silver were the adornments of sword-hilts, saddles, bridles, and banners. English gold rings contained gems, and even their garments were sometimes jewelled. The crown of an English king is described as made of gold and silver, and set with various gems.

The productions of India and the East were known to our ancestors, and highly valued by them. In fact, they frequently gave presents of such things as frankincense, pepper, cinnamon, etc. The English made common use of hot baths, and the washing of the feet in warm water, especially after travelling, is often mentioned. It was indeed a part of every-day hospitality to offer this refreshment to a visitor; and to wash the feet of the poor was one of the acts of penance to be performed by the rich.

The food of the English was varied; they reared various kinds of domestic animals, and grew corn in abundance. Oxen, sheep, swine, fowls, and deer were the commonest animals used for food; and it is worth noting that of these the most numerous were swine. The meat was generally salted; and, when cold weather set in, large numbers of sheep and oxen were

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killed to be preserved for the coming winter. kinds of fish were caught and eaten, but of them all the eel was the most abundant. Fish was such a favourite article of diet that the supply never equalled the demand; and, although many things have changed, it seems that the fish then liked have continued in favour to our own days. Herrings, oysters, crabs, salmon, skate, flounders, and many other kinds of fish formed the favourite dishes of our forefathers. But although animal food was in much use among the English, it was rather the food of the wealthier than of the poorer classes.

Bread was made of wheat and barley, but wheat, like meat, was the dearer article, and therefore less general. Fruit was abundant, and orchards were numerous. We find figs, grapes, nuts, almonds, pears, and apples mentioned frequently. Most people had bee-hives for the sake of honey, for then there was no sugar such as we have to-day.

In an old manuscript we have a list of the articles of food eaten by a child, who, in reply to a question, *What do you eat to-day?" says: "As yet I feed on flesh-meat, because I am a child living under the rod." A second question is put: "What more do you eat?" and the answer comes: Herbs, eggs,

fish, cheese, butter, and beans, and all clean things I eat with many thanks."

At the chief meal the master of the house sat at the head of the table; each man took the meat in his fingers, and either bit off a piece or cut it off with a knife or dagger. The lady of the house sat by her husband; but when the drinking began, she