organised; that forts were built; that books were written for the people; that the waste lands were again inhabited; that abbeys and churches were founded; and that skilful teachers went in and out among the Wessex folk.

It would seem that Alfred's reforms began with the military organisation of his people, for he had learned by bitter experience that the military system of Wessex was not suited to the needs of the nation. Hitherto the national army, or Fyrd as it was called, consisted of the mass of free landowners who formed the folk, but which could only be summoned by order of the folk-moot. There were many difficulties in mobilising this force, especially in arming it, or in sending it on a long expedition. Arms were costly, and West-Saxons armed with bludgeons and hedgestakes were no match for the Danes with their spears and battle-axes.

Men only served in the Fyrd as long as they could be spared from their homes and farms, and their length of service in the field was limited to two months. Hence, if the Danes found themselves beaten, they used to fall behind their entrenchments for two months, when the Fyrd would depart to their homes. The Danes had none of these difficulties, for they were a highly organised body of men, whose sole object was to fight and live by plunder. They formed in fact a standing army of great mobility; and Alfred saw that he must raise a standing army if he wanted to be the victor.

He began by enlisting in the ranks of the Thegns all the more wealthy and influential of the middle

class both in town and country. Every man who had five hides of land, a helm, and a mail-shirt, and a sword ornamented with gold was to be considered worthy of becoming a Thegn. The same privilege was also bestowed on any merchant" who had fared thrice over the high seas at his own expense." In return for this promotion in rank, the Thegns were bound to follow the king to the field in full mail, accompanied by one or more of their own followers, who were to be provided with victuals and pay. Each borough was also bound to send a contingent, varying from one soldier to twelve.

A new and well-armed force was thus ready to do battle for their king, while, at the same time, it was still the duty of every free man to join the Fyrd as before. This latter body the king divided into two halves, each of which served by turns in the field, while the other half was exempted from field service on condition of defending its own forts or entrenchments round every township.

How well Alfred's new army did its work will be seen when next we describe their encounters with the Danes, who soon discovered that their opponents could march rapidly, and knew how to attack and defend positions. The formation of Alfred's army and the building of forts went on side by side with the equipment of a fleet, which should be more efficient than that of the Northmen. Alfred had begun to build ships in 878; and four years later he had commanded his own fleet and destroyed the ships of the Vikings. His whole energies were now given to the formation of a national fleet, and to the en

couragement of the fishers to man his ships. It was not till 897 that he had achieved success, for then the Chronicle tells us: "King Alfred commanded longships to be built to oppose the Danish longships; they were full nigh twice as long as the others; some had sixty oars, some had more; they were both swifter and steadier, and also higher than the others. They were shaped neither like the Frisian nor the Danish, but as it seemed to him they could be most useful."

Here again we have an insight into the ingenuity and resourcefulness of the king. He built bigger ships and better ships, and he himself was his own naval architect. Proud must Alfred have been, when he saw the ships of his own designing successfully encountering the once-dreaded ships of the Danes; and although sometimes his vessels would run aground, yet they managed to clear the sea of the pirates. These sea-fights along the south coast are nearly the last things that we hear of in Alfred's reign. The crews of two Danish ships were captured, and were led to the king, who was then residing in his royal town of Winchester. The Chronicle simply relates he commanded them to be, there hanged." We cannot blame him for it, as the Danes were mere pirates, only engaged in plunder, and had made oaths to Alfred which they had repeatedly broken.

It is thus evident that Alfred could be severe when necessary; and it is gratifying to note that, after this salutary exhibition of his severity, we hear of no more troubles till the day of his death. His

wise naval policy was continued by his son; and now, after the lapse of one thousand years, we, as a nation, realise that to retain our commercial superiority and to guard our shores, we must build bigger and better ships than those of our rivals.

CHAPTER XXII.

THE KING'S LAW.

WHEN Alfred had completed the re-organisation of the defences of his country, he had another difficult task to perform, viz., the re-organisation of public justice. During the long period of warfare, when for so many years the sword alone had governed, the existing laws had protected no one, and the property of people was not more secure than their lives. Alfred's great task then was to arrange a new code of laws, to appoint judges, and to restore confidence among all classes of the community.

had

His biographer, Asser, gives us a picture of the oppression of the poor and the tyranny of the rich, and assures us that, besides the king, "the poor few or no protectors. For all the powerful and noble of the country had turned their thoughts rather to worldly than to heavenly matters; each was more bent on worldly affairs to his own profit than on the public good." That the king did his work thoroughly may be gathered from Asser's statement, that Alfred was a minute investigator of the truth in all his

judgments, and this especially for the sake of the poor, to whose interest, day and night, he was ever wonderfully attentive."

One of the first changes he introduced was to persuade his people that he was the fountain and source of justice, and that in future it would be the "king's peace" and not the "peace of the folk" that would be in force. He also impressed on all his officers his high claim to their submission, "for," said he, "it is by gift from God and from me

COIN OF ALFRED.

The judg

that you occupy your office and rank." ments given by these judges were " inquired into " by the king, who would see "whether they were just or unjust." If he thought the judgments were wrong, he would summon the judges before him and discover whether they had erred through "ignorance or ill-will, or from hate of any, or from love of gold." The king's determination was to make the law the king's law; and to make offences against the law offences against the king.

The work was indeed great, and in one of his books the king exclaims: "Hardship and sorrow! Not a king but would wish to be without these if he could. But I know that he cannot." Not for one moment, however, was the king dismayed by the greatness and difficulty of his work of securing public justice, which he was desirous of maintaining not only in Wessex, but also in Mercia and Kent. Before his time each of these kingdoms had its own