more moderate politicians should have regarded it as one of the safeguards of the constitution.

Since the passing of the reform act, various minor Proceedings at amendments have been made in the electoral laws. The elections registration of electors has been improved and simplified', improved. the number of polling-places has been increased, and the polling reduced, in counties as well as in boroughs, a single day. Even the Universities, which had retained their fifteen days of polling, were glad to accept five days, in 1853.

Promptitude in election proceedings has further been ensured by the change of some ancient customs. The prescriptive period of forty days between the summons of a new Parliament and its meeting- enlarged by custom to fifty days since the Union with Scotland, having become an anomaly in an age of railways and telegraphs, has been reduced to thirty-five. Another ancient custom has also given way to a more simple procedure. By a recent act the writs for an election are addressed direct to the several returning officers, instead of passing through the sheriff of the county.5 A more general revision of the representative system, Later meaas settled by the reform acts of 1832, has also been the aim of several administrations, and Parliaments. For some years, there had been a natural reluctance to disturb the settlement which those important measures had recently effected. The old Whig party had regarded it as a constitutional charter, and contended for its "finality." But their advanced Liberal supporters, —— after many discussions in Parliament, and much agitation and "pressure from without,"-at length prevailed over

1 6 & 7 Vict. c. 18.

2 6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 102.

3 5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 36; 16 & 17 Vict. c. 15.

4 By Lord Brougham's Act, 1852; 15 Vict. c. 23.

5 16 & 17 Vict. c. 78.

sures of re

form.

Reform Bill of 1852,

the more cautious policy of their leaders; and a promise was given, in 1851, that the consideration of the representative system should, at a fitting opportunity, be resumed.'

In fulfilment of this promise, Lord John Russell,twenty years after the settlement of 1832,-proposed its further revision. That measure had not proposed to redistribute the franchise, in precise correspondence with the population of different parts of the country. Not founded upon theoretical views of equal representation; it had not assumed to frame a new constitution; but had provided a remedy for the worst evils of a faulty and corrupt electoral system. It had rescued the representation from a small oligarchy of and peers landowners; and had vested it in the hands of the middle classes. But it had spared many boroughs, which were perhaps too small to exercise their suffrage independently; it had over-looked the claims of some considerable places; and had not embraced the working classes within its scheme of enfranchisement. Lord John Russell now sought to correct these partial defects, which time had disclosed in the original measure.

He proposed that every existing borough, having less than five hundred electors, should be associated with adjacent places, in the right of returning members; and that Birkenhead and Burnley should be enfranchised. In twenty years there had been a vast increase of population, wealth, and industry, throughout the country. The spread of education and political enlightenment had been rapid: a more instructed generation had grown up: and a marked improvement had

Speech of Lord John Russell, 20th June, 1848: Ibid, xcix. 20th Feb. 1851; Hansard's Deb. 929.

3rd Ser., cxiv, 863. See also Speech

arisen, in the social condition of the working classes. It was, therefore, thought right and safe to lower the franchise so far as to embrace classes not hitherto included, and particularly the most skilled artificers, men who had given proof of their intelligence and good conduct, by large earnings, and a high position. among their fellow workmen. With this view, it was proposed to extend the borough franchise to the occupiers of houses of 5l. rated value; and the county franchise to tenants-at-will rated at 20., and copyholders and leaseholders rated at 5l. It was also intended to create a new franchise, arising out of the annual payment of 40s. in direct taxes to the state. Lord John Russell's administration soon afterwards resigned; and this measure was withdrawn before the second reading.'

of 1854.

In 1854, Lord John Russell, as a member of Lord Reform Bill Aberdeen's government, proposed another measure, more comprehensive than the last. It comprised the disfranchisement of nineteen small boroughs, returning twenty-nine members; the deprivation of thirty-three other boroughs of one of their members; and the redistribution of the vacant seats, sixty-six in number2, amongst the counties and larger boroughs, the Inns of Court, and the University of London. It proposed to reduce the franchise in counties to 107.; and in boroughs to the municipal rating franchise of 61. Several new franchises were also to be added, in order to modify the hard uniformity of the household franchise. A salary of 100l. a year: an income of 107. from dividends: the payment of 40s. in direct taxes: a degree at any of the universities; and 50%. in a

1 Hansard's Deb. 3rd Ser., cxix. 252, 971: Bill, No. 48, of 1852.

2 Including the vacant seats of Sudbury and St. Albans.

The Reform Bill of 1859.

savings' bank, were accounted sufficient securities for the proper exercise of the suffrage. In the distribution of seats, a novel principle was to be established, with a view to ensure the representation of minorities. Some counties and other large places were to return three members each; but no elector would be entitled to vote for more than two candidates out of three. This theory of representation, though very ably advo cated by some speculative writers', - found little favour in Parliament, with men accustomed to determine every disputed question among themselves, by the votes of the majority. The consideration of this measure was postponed, by the outbreak of the war with Russia. 2

The next measure of Parliamentary reform was proposed in 1859, by the government of Lord Derby. Lord Derby, having been one of the most eloquent, spirited, and courageous of Lord Grey's colleagues in 1832, was now the leader of the great Conservative party, which had opposed the first reform act. But his party, deferring to the judgment of Parliament, had since honourably acquiesced in that settlement. Meanwhile, the revision of that measure had been thrice recommended from the throne; and three successive administrations had been pledged to undertake the task. Some scheme of reform had thus become a political necessity. The measure agreed upon by the ministers, and the principles upon which it was founded, were ably explained by Mr. Disraeli. It was not sought to reconstruct the representation of the country solely on the basis of population and property: but

1 Minorities and Majorities; their relative Rights, by James Garth Marshall, 1853; Edinb. Rev., July 1854, Art. vii.; and more lately

Hare on the Election of Representatives, 1859.

2 Hansard's Deb., 3rd Ser. cxxx. 491; Ibid., cxxxi. 277.

having reference to those material elements, as well as to the representation of various interests, and classes of the community, this measure comprehended some considerable changes. It was not proposed wholly to disfranchise any borough; but one member was to be taken from fifteen boroughs, having a population under six thousand. Eight of the vacant seats were assigned to the great county populations of Yorkshire, South Lancashire, and Middlesex; and seven to new boroughs; which according to this scheme, would complete the representation of the several interests of the country.

The two previous measures of Lord John Russell had contemplated a reduction of the borough franchise. No such reduction was now proposed; but the franchise in counties, was assimilated to that in boroughs. Hitherto the borough franchise had been founded upon occupation; and the county franchise generally upon property. This distinction it was now proposed to abolish; and to substitute an identity of franchise, between the county and the town. The 40s. freeholders. resident in towns, would be transferred from the constituency of the county, to that of the town. Several new franchises were also to be created, similar to those proposed in 1854, but more comprehensive. Men possessed of 10l. a year arising from dividends: 607. in a savings' bank; or a pension of 201. lodgers paying 207. a year,-equal to 8s. a week: graduates of all universities: ministers of religion of every denomination members of the legal profession in all its branches : registered medical practitioners; and schoolmasters holding a certificate from the Privy Council, were to be entitled to vote, wherever they were resident. And facilities for exercising the franchise, were to be afforded by means of voting papers.1

1 Hansard's Deb. 3rd Ser., clii. 966.