been carriages well hung, and therefore easy and soft of motion. Niebuhr is in favour of this same interpretation. (Röm. Gesch. vol. i. p. 463, n. 977.)—666. Pilentis. The pilentum was a splendid fourwheeled carriage, furnished with soft cushions (to which last some think that mollibus here alludes, though not correctly), which conveyed the Roman matrons in sacred processions, and in going to the Circensian and other games. The distinction was granted to them by the Senate, on account of their generosity in giving their gold and jewels, on a particular occasion, for the service of the state. (Compare Liv. v. 25.)

668. Et te Catilina minaci, &c. Catilina is here placed in Tartarus, and the younger Cato, who so nobly opposed his murderous designs, has a seat assigned him in Elysium. That the Cato, who died at Utica, is here meant, there can be no doubt whatever nor need we be surprised at Virgil's openly praising a republican and patriot. It was part of the policy of Augustus to keep up an appearance of freedom, and to profess an attachment to the old forms of the republic, while in reality he was playing the tyrant. A difficulty, however, of another kind has been started by some commentators. In the sixth book (1. 434), Virgil has assigned a different spot in the lower world to those who committed suicide, and yet here Cato, who fell by his own hand, is made lawgiver to the souls of the pious. A poet, however, as Symmons remarks, is not to be compelled to such rigorous consistency; and though the multitude of suicides might be condemned to a state of middle punishment, one illustrious soul might be exempted from their lot, and stationed by the power of his virtues among the blessed. Besides, it is to be remarked that the suicides whom Virgil represents as suffering in Hades are they who wantonly threw away their lives from the mere impatience of existence, and not they with whom the act of self-destruction was, as they believed, justified by the motive, or consecrated by the cause in which it was committed.

671. Hæc inter tumidi, &c. "In the midst of these (scenes) was spread far and wide a representation of the swelling sea wrought in gold, while the waters foamed with silver wave;" i. e. while the foam of the waves was wrought in silver. In the shield of Achilles, as described by Homer, Oceanus, the great world-stream, is represented, according to the rude geographical ideas of that early age, as running around the border of the shield; for, with Homer, the earth is a circular plane encircled or girded by Oceanus. In the shield of Eneas, on the other hand, the sea occupies the middle of the picture, and represents the Mediterranean.

672. Carula. Equivalent to æquora. There is, in fact, an ellipsis of maria.-673. In orbem. "In circular course."-675. In medio, i. e. the central part round about the boss.-676. Cernere erat. An imitation of the Greek idiom, where v is employed with somewhat of the force of Ev.-Instructo Marte. Equivalent, in fact, to classibus instructis.-677. Fervere. With the short penult, from the old stemform ferco, of the third conjugation.-Leucaten. Referring to the promontory of Leucate, in the island of Leucadia. This promontory was at some distance from the true scene of action, the battle having been fought in the mouth of the Sinus Ambracius, lying to the north. The poet, however, represents the fleets of Antony and Octavianus as drawn up in opposition to each other near this same promontory, in order to give a more imposing aspect to the scene.

Auroque effulgere fluctus. This looks very much like a later interpolation, inserted for the purpose of completing the verse. We have already been told that the sea was golden (1. 671, seqq.), and, besides, that the crest of the billows was of silver; so that what is stated seems either superfluous, or else contradictory to what has gone before. Weichert, Jahn, and Wagner attempt to defend it, but with very little success.-Effulgere. From the old stem-form effulgo.

678. Hinc Augustus, &c. "On the one side (is) Augustus Cæsar," &c. Augustus defends the Roman nation, and the gods of his native land; Antony, on the other hand, comes supported by a foreign force, and as the enemy of his country. The poet skilfully avails himself of this idea.-679. Cum Patribus Populoque. This is stated, in order that it might appear that Augustus was defending the cause of the republic, as intrusted to him by the Senate and people.-Penatibus et magnis Dis. Compare iii. 12.-680. Stans celsá in puppi, &c. An imposing picture. Augustus stands at the stern of the vessel, near the images of the tutelary divinities; bright flames play about his temples, while above his head, on the top of his helmet, shines the star of his line, the Julium sidus.

681. Aperitur is properly said of the rising of a star, and becomes here, therefore, a forcible term, as indicating a new luminary of the sky. Heyne explains geminas flammas tempora, as poetic for gemina tempora flammas.-Lata. Denoting here merely brightness or splendor. Compare i. 591.—Patrium sidus. Alluding to the famous star, or rather comet, which appeared not long after the assassination of Julius Cæsar, and which was visible for seven nights, beginning to appear each time one hour before sunset. (Sueton. Vit. Cæs. 88.) This star, according to the popular belief of the day, was the soul of Cæsar received into the sky. Hence Augustus caused a star to be affixed to the head of Cæsar's statues, and he himself wore one on the top of his helmet at the battle of Actium. (Voss, ad Eclog. ix. 47.)

682. Agrippa. The famous M. Vipsanius Agrippa, who commanded the fleet on the present occasion, and to whose exertions Augustus was mainly indebted for the victory.-Ventis secundis. The wind had been adverse until the fifth day. Hence ventis here, as the more immediately important term, precedes dis.-683. Arduus. Referring to his station on the stern of his ship, like that of Augustus. (Compare verse 680.)

Cui, belli insigne superbum. "For whom, proud badge of (successful) warfare, his beak-decked temples shine resplendent with a naval crown," i. e. his brow is encircled with a corona rostrata of gold.-Belli insigne superbum. Augustus had bestowed a corona rosstrata of gold on Agrippa, for his naval victory over Sextus Pompeius, off the coast of Sicily. Velleius Paterculus says that it had been previously conferred on no Roman (ii. 81).

684. Tempora navali, &c. It seems difficult to determine whether the corona nacalis and the corona rostrata were two distinct crowns, or only two denominations for the same one. Virgil here unites both terms in one sentence. But it appears probable, that the former, besides being a generic term, was inferior in dignity to the latter, and was given to the sailor who first boarded an enemy's ship; whereas the latter was given to a commander who destroyed the whole fleet, or gained any signal victory. At all events, they were both made of gold

685. Hinc ope barbaricâ, &c. “On the other side, Antonius, with barbaric aid, and arms of various kinds, victorious from the nations of the remote East," &c. Antony, besides the Roman legions, which had suffered much in the wars with the Armenians, Medes, and Parthians (Vell. Paterc. ii. 82), brought a large number of eastern auxiliaries with him. (Plut. Vit. Ant. c. 61.) These troops, moreover, having been collected from different nations, must have had very different kinds of arms. Hence ope barbaricâ, and cariis armis. 686. Victor ab Aurora populis, &c. Antony had been recently successful against the Parthians. He had also become possessed of the person of Artavasdes, king of Armenia. (Plut. Vit. Ant. c. 37, seqq. -Vell. Paterc. l. c.)-Litore rubro. Not the shore of what we term at the present day the Red Sea, but that of the Indian Ocean. This ocean the Greeks termed ipv@pà láλacoa, which the Latins translated by mare rubrum.-687. Ultima Bactra. Put here for the remote East generally. Bactra was the furthest city of the East that was subject to Antony, and hence the language of the text, ultima Bactra.-688. Sequiturque (nefas!) &c. "And, (0 monstrous !) an Egyptian consort follows (him)." Cleopatra is meant. A union between a Roman and a foreigner was not regarded as a lawful marriage, but simply as a living together. Hence the foul disgrace which such a union brought with it to Antony. Equally disgraceful was it to come to the battle accompanied by a female, and one, too, unto whom, although she was a foreigner, he had promised, if victorious, the full dominion of the Roman world.

689. Ruere. Supply videntur. Heyne gives ruere here a transitive force, and understands mare, making the verb refer to an upturning of the sea with oars, &c. Wagner regards ruere as meaning here simply "to rush."-690. Rostris tridentibus. Consult note on i. 35.-691. Pelago credas, &c., i. e. from the size of the ships engaged, you would believe that they were so many floating islands. The large ships, however, were on the side of Antony. Augustus gained the victory by his light Liburnian galleys.

693. Tantâ mole viri, &c. "The combatants press on in turretcrowned ships of so vast a bulk." The ships of Antony, on this occasion, were, according to the unanimous testimony of the ancient writers, remarkable for their great size. They had also, besides this, large towers erected on them.

694. Stuppea flamma, &c. "The blazing tow is scattered around from the hand, and the winged steel from military engines." The poet here alludes to what was technically called a malleolus. The term denoted a hammer, the transverse head of which was formed for holding pitch and tow, which, having been set on fire, was projected slowly, so that it might not be extinguished during its flight, upon houses and other buildings, in order to set them on fire, and which was, therefore, commonly used in sieges, naval battles, &c. Virgil is here historically correct, since a large number of Antony's vessels, which fought with obstinate bravery even after he had fled, were set on fire by missiles and destroyed.

695. Nová cæde. "With the first slaughter." Nová merely marks the commencement of the conflict. So Wagner.

696. Regina in mediis, &c. The allusion is again to Cleopatra. Virgil ironically places the sistrum in her hands, and, in like manner, Propertius represents her as wishing to put to flight with this instrument the Roman trumpet (iii. 2, 43). The sistrum was an Egyptian

instrument of music, used in certain ceremonies by that people, and especially in the worship of Isis. It was held in the right hand, and shaken, from which circumstance it derived its name, σtiστpov, from σεiw, "to shake." Apuleius describes the sistrum as a bronze rattle (æreum crepitaculum), consisting of a narrow plate curved like a sword-belt, through which passed a few rods, that rendered a loud, shrill sound. He says that these instruments were sometimes made of silver, or even of gold.

697. Necdum etiam geminos, &c. "Nor does she even as yet behold the two serpents behind her," i. e. foresee her approaching end, or the serpents that are to cause it. Cleopatra, according to the common account, destroyed herself by the bite of an asp. Virgil, however, would seem to have followed some other version of the story, which made her to have employed two asps. Compare the language of Velleius Paterculus (ii. 87).

698. Omnigenûmque deûm monstra. The gods of Egypt are here arrayed against the gods of Rome. The language of the poet contains an ironical allusion to the strange deities, and the animal worship of the Egyptians. Anubis was represented with the head of a dog, and hence he is styled latrator.

701. Calatus ferro. "Fashioned in relief out of iron."-Tristesque ex æthere Dira. "And the gloomy Furies (darting down) from the sky."-702. Palla. Consult note on i. 648.-704. Actius Apollo. Referring to Apollo as worshipped on the promontory of Actium, where he had a temple. Hence the term desuper in the text, Apollo being described as looking down from his mountain-height on the scene of the conflict.

707. Ipsa videbatur, &c. It will be borne in mind that various stages of the fight were pourtrayed on the shield. Cleopatra a moment ago was represented as summoning her followers to the conflict, and she is now depicted in another part of the shield as in the act of fleeing from the battle. The ancient writers make her to have been the first that fled on the present occasion. The infatuated Antony followed her, and ruined all his hopes.-708. Et laxos jam jamque, &c. "And now, even now, to be letting out the uncoiled braces," i. e. and to be now expanding every sail. Consult note v. 830.-709. Pallentem morte futurâ. "Pale at (the thought of) approaching death." The poet makes the Egyptian queen to have already meditated the act of self-destruction. Some commentators, however, refer the words of the text merely to the terror of the moment, lest death might overtake her amid the tumult of battle and flight. It is rather, however, the paleness of despair.

710. Iapyge. "Iapyx." This wind blew in the line of Apulia, Iapygia, and the promontory of Iapyx (Promontorium Iapygium), whence it derived its name. It answered to the west-north-west, and was directly favourable for Cleopatra in her flight towards Egypt. The wind, as may be inferred from the accounts of those who have recorded this memorable battle, shifted during the engagement from the south-east to the west-north-west, from the former of which points it had favoured the sailing of the fleet of Augustus when it proceeded to meet the enemy, and from the latter it now speeded the flight of Antony's forces towards the Peloponnesus and Egypt.

712. Pandentemque sinus. The river-god, in a reclining posture, his form partially covered with a robe, stands ready to receive the

fugitives into his bosom.-Totâ veste. "With all his expanded robe." Equivalent to toto sinu expanso. The reference is to the sinus, or swelling bosom of the robe.-713. Cœruleum in gremium. The colour of the waters is here applied to the god himself. Compare line 64, "Caeruleus Thybris."-Latebrosaque flumina, i. e. waters affording many lurking-places or latebræ. The reference appears to be especially to the numerous mouths, &c., of the Nile, and their intricate navigation.

"Was

714. At Caesar, triplici, &c. We now come to the grandest feature in the whole description, the threefold triumph of Augustus. This splendid pageant lasted three days. On the first day was celebrated a triumph for the reduction of the Iapydes, Pannonians, and Dalmatians. On the second day there was a triumph for the victory at Actium, and on the third day one for the reduction of Alexandria and Egypt, and the close of the war. (Dio Cass. li. 21.-Sueton. Vit. Aug. 22.)-715. Dis Italis votum immortale sacrabat, &c. paying his immortal vow to the gods of Italy, (was consecrating) three hundred most spacious temples throughout the whole city." Observe the zeugma in sacrabat. The common text quite destroys the effect of this, by placing a comma after immortale, and connecting sacrabat with the succeeding line.-716. Tercentum. A definite for an indefinite number, and equivalent to plurima. It must be observed, also, that the poet here assigns to one particular period of the life of Augustus what was scattered, in fact, over the whole of his reign, the consecrating, namely, of numerous temples, &c. (Compare Sueton. Vit. Aug. 29).

718. Matrum chorus. "(There was) a band of matrons," i. e. Roman mothers, returning thanks to the gods, with prayers and hymns, for the return of peace.-720. Ipse. splendid addition to the picture. Augustus is represented as sitting under the marble portico of the temple of the Palatine Apollo, and looking down upon the triumphal procession as it passes by. In this procession are borne the golden crowns presented to him by various nations (dona populorum), long trains of captives succeed, and along with them are carried the effigies of rivers, the Euphrates, the Rhine, the Araxes, all of which have acknowledged his arms.-Niveo limine. "On the snow-white threshold," i. e. in the marble portico. The temple of the Palatine Apollo is here meant.

721. Dona recognoscit populorum, &c. "Reviews the gifts of many a nation."

724. Nomadum. Referring to the nomadic tribes of Africa. Antony drew large supplies from Africa, especially from Ethiopia, and from Cyrene on the Mediterranean coast.-Discinctos Afros, i. e. loosely attired, as inhabitants of a hot clime.-725. Lelegas, Carasque. Names of ancient communities, put here to represent the nations of Asia Minor.-Gelonos. The Geloni were, properly speaking, a Scythian or Sarmatian race. Here, however, they stand for the Thracian tribes, many of whom were numbered among the forces of Antony.

726. Mollior undis, i. e. with a more gentle stream, as if acknowledging defeat. The reference here is to the Parthians particularly.-727. Morini. The Morini were a people of Belgic Gaul, on the shores of the British Ocean. They are here called extremi hominum with reference to their remote situation on the coast.

Rhenusque bicornis. "And the two-horned Rhine." Alluding