ferent kinds of the substances are referred to, the plural form is used; as, waters, wines, teas.

8. In compound words, if the word denoting the principal idea is placed first, it is changed to form the plural; as, court-martial, courtsmartial; cousin-german, cousins-german; hanger-on, hangers-on; but if the principal word is placed last, the final word is changed; as, hand-ful, hand-fuls; both parts being (apparently) equally prominent are changed in man-servant, woman-servant, and knight-templar; as, men-servants, womenservants, knights-templars.

9. Letters, marks, figures, and signs are pluralized by adding 's; as, the s's; the 's; the 's; the 9's; the 's.

10. When other parts of speech are used as nouns, their plurals are formed regularly; as, "The ifs and buts;" "The whys and wherefores ;" "At sixes and sevens.'

11. Many nouns from foreign languages retain their original plurals ; as, antithesis, antitheses; arcanum, arcana; automaton, automata; axis, axes; bandit, banditti; basis, bases; beau, beaux; cherub, cherubim; criterion, criteria; crisis, crises; datum, data; desideratum, desiderata; encomium, encomia; effluvium, effluvia; erratum, errata; ellipsis, ellipses; focus, foci; formula, formula; genus, genera; hypothesis, hypotheses; madame, mesdames; magus, magi; memorandum, memoranda; medium, media; minutia, minutiæ; metamorphosis, metamorphoses; monsieur, messieurs; nebula, nebulæ; phenomenon, phenomena; radius, radii; seraph, seraphim; stimulus, stimuli; stratum, strata; stamen, stamina; vortex, vortices.

44. Plural of Proper Names.

1. SINGLE NAMES. The proper name of an individual object, has no plural.

2. When several of the same name or family are spoken of together, the name takes the plural form; as, "The Tudors;" "The twelve Cæsars." 3. So, also, the proper names of races, communities, and nations, are plural; as, "The Indians;" "The Jesuits," "The Romans."

4. The plurals of proper names are formed, as a general rule, according to the analogy of common names; as, Canada, Canadas; Jew, Jews; Ptolemy, Ptolemies.

5. COMPLEX NAMES. When two or more names applied to the same individual, stand in a sort of apposition to each other, they are generally considered as one complex name, and are made plural by varying

Compounds. Letters, marks, &c. Other parts of speech used as nouns. Nouns from foreign languages. Plural of single proper names,-of complex

names.

the last only; as, "The George Washingtons," "May there not be Sir Isaac Newtons in every science?"— Watts.

6. A TITLE AND A NAME. When a title, as Miss, Mrs., Mr., Gen., Capt., or Dr., is prefixed to a proper name, usage has not been uniform in the formation of the plural. Sometimes the title, sometimes the name, and sometimes both have been varied; as, The Misses Brown; The Miss Thompsons; The Misses Winthrops.

7. In all these cases, the relative prominence of the name and title for the most part, determines the plural form. Thus,—

(a.) When the name is made prominent, that alone, and not the title, takes the plural form. In speaking of three persons by the name of Brown, we should say (44, 2) "The three Browns;" thus distinguishing them from the Smiths, or those of any other name. Now, with this idea uppermost, if we wished also to distinguish them as young ladies, we should add, incidentally, the distinctive title," the three Miss Browns." So, the Dr. Smiths.

(b.) When the title is to be made prominent, that alone should be varied. Thus, if we should speak of three persons, and say the three Misses, we should distinguish them as ladies, from so many gentlemen; in the same way, we say, the two Drs., the three Generals. If now, with the title prominent, we would incidentally add the name, we should say, (1.) if the names were different, "the three Misses Brown, Atwood, and Putnam;" (2.) if the same, "the three Misses Brown," and especially so without the numeral; as, "The Misses Brown." In the former of these cases, if the name were prominent, we should say, "Miss Brown, Miss Atwood, and Miss Putnam."

(c.) When two titles are made equally prominent, they are both varied; as, "The Lords Bishops of Durham and St. David's ;" "The Knights Baronets" (43, 8). And so it would seem, by the same law, that, when a title and a name are made equally emphatic, they should both be varied. Thus, the Misses Winthrop, in distinction from the Messrs. Winthrop; and the Misses Winthrops, in distinction from the Messrs. Mortons. Yet, usage seems to be nearly uniform in placing the plural name after Mrs.; as, "The Mrs. Whites ;" and the plural title before the names, when persons of different names are mentioned together; as, "The Misses Wilson and Everett ;""Messrs. Little and Brown."

45. Remarks on the Number of Nouns.

1. NOUNS WITHOUT A PLURAL. Proper nouns, except as in (44, 2, 3), and nouns denoting substance (43, 7), except when different sorts are expressed, have no plural; as, gold, grass, wine.

2. NOUNS WITHOUT THE SINGULAR. The following nouns have no singular: embers, oats, scissors, vespers, literati, antipodes, ashes, clothes, billiards, ides, intestines, vitals, bellows, drawers, nippers, tongs, shears, &c. Lungs, bowels, and some others have a singular denoting a part of the whole; as, lung, bowel.

Plural of a title and a name. Nouns without a plural. Nouns without the singular.

3. The following words are plural in respect to their original form, but singular or plural in respect to their meaning: alms, amends, news, riches, pains (meaning effort), odds, wages, molasses, series, suds, corps, measles, tidings, mumps, rickets, nuptials; as also the names of some of the sciences; as, mathematics, ethics, optics, statics, mechanics, mnemonics. NOTE.-News is now regarded as singular; so also measles and molasses, although they have the plural form.

4. NOUNS EITHER SINGULAR OR PLural. Some nouns are alike in both numbers; as, deer, sheep, swine, vermin, hose, fry, trout, salmon, brace, couple, dozen, yoke, gross.

46. Exercise.

1. Tell which of the following nouns are singular, and which are plural :— Daughter, day, chairs, watches, apple, pears, stars, oats, coat, nails, inkstand, horn, hearts, hoof, books, bundle, scissors, news, trout, milk, purity, chimneys.

2. Write the plural of the following nouns, and give the rule for the termination:

Work, example, lady, oak, horse, hope, stratagem, ferry, leaf, storm, bird, bond, thief, sex, day, filly, half, watch, iron, vinegar, turkey, tomato, potato, spoonful, step-father.

3. Tell the singular of the following:

Heroes, pence, strata, teeth, dies, memoranda, children, mice, hypotheses, messieurs, brethren, scissors, seraphim, axes, snuffers, errata, cherubim, sheep, formulæ, swine, solos, flies, knives, riches, mottoes, octavos, courts-martial, inkstands, indices.

4. Correct the following plurals, and give the rule or remarks for the correction :

Negros, folioes, vallies, dutys, thiefs, yokes, calfs, phenomenons, criterions, mans, turkies, flys, father-in-laws, grottoes, son-in-laws, cupsfull, echoes.

47. Gender of Nouns.

1. Gender is a distinction of nouns in regard to sex.

2. There are three genders-the masculine, the feminine, and the neuter.

3. Nouns which denote males are of the masculine gender; as, man, king, hero.

Nouns plural in form but singular in meaning. Nouns either singular or plural. Gender,-masculine, feminine, neuter.

4. Nouns which denote females are of the feminine gender; as, woman, queen, mother.

5. Nouns which denote neither males nor females are of the neuter gender; as, tree, rock, paper.

6. Some nouns may denote either males or females; as, parent, child, cousin. These are sometimes said to be of the common gender; but as the gender of such nouns may generally be determined by the connection, there seems to be no necessity for the distinction. In case the gender is not so determined, such nouns may be called masculine.

7. By a figure of speech, called Personification, the masculine or feminine gender is applied to inanimate objects; thus we say of a ship, "She sails well;" of the sun, "He rises in the east." The use of this figure imparts peculiar beauty and animation to language. "Her flag streams wildly, and her fluttering sails pant to be on their flight.' "The meek-eyed morn appears, mother of dews."

8. In speaking of the inferior animals, and sometimes even of infants, the distinction of sex is not observed; as, "And it became a serpent, and Moses fled from before it." "The child was lying in its cradle." But in speaking of animals distinguished for boldness, size, or any other marked quality peculiar to the male, we attribute to them the masculine gender, even when the sex is not known; as, "The eagle is the king of birds."

9. Collective nouns, if they convey the idea of unity, or take the plural form, are neuter; as, "The army, on its approach, raised a shout of defiance." But if they convey the idea of plurality without the plural form, they take the gender of the individuals which compose the collection; as, "The jury could not agree upon their verdict."

10. When the sexes are distinguished by different words (48, 1), the masculine is used to include both sexes; as, "Jenner conferred a great benefit on man."

48. Methods of distinguishing the Sexes.

1. By using different words :

EXAMPLES. Bachelor, maid; beau, belle; boar, sow; boy, girl; brother, sister; buck, doe; bull, cow; cock, hen; drake, duck; earl, countess; father, mother; gander, goose; horse, mare; husband, wife; king, queen; lad, lass; lord, lady; male, female; man, woman; nephew, niece; ram, ewe; son, daughter; stag, hind; uncle, aunt; wizard, witch; dog, bitch; monk, nun; hart, roe; master, mistress; Mister, Mistress (Mr., Mrs.); papa, mamma; sir, madam; sloven, slut; steer, heifer; youth, damsel; swain, nymph.

Gender shown by different words.

(a.) Some masculine nouns have no corresponding feminines; as, baker, brewer, porter, carrier; while some feminine nouns have no corresponding masculine; as, laundress, seamstress.

2. By a difference of termination :

EXAMPLES. Abbot, abbess; actor, actress; administrator, administratrix; adulterer, adultress; ambassador, ambassadress; author, authoress; baron, baroness; bridegroom, bride; benefactor, benefactress; count, countess; dauphin, dauphiness; deacon, deaconess; director, directress; duke, duchess; emperor, empress; executor, executrix; governor, governess; heir, heiress; hero, heroine; hunter, huntress; host, hostess; instructor, instructress; Jew, Jewess; landgrave, landgravine; lion, lioness; marquis, marchioness; monitor, monitress; patron, patroness; poet, poetess; priest, priestess; prince, princess; prophet, prophetess; shepherd, shepherdess; testator, testatrix; tiger, tigress; tutor, tutoress; widower, widow; god, goddess; giant, giantess; negro, negress; songster, songstress; sorcerer, sorceress; sultan, sultana.

3. By joining some distinguishing word:

EXAMPLES. Landlord, landlady; gentleman, gentlewoman; peacock, peahen; he-goat, she-goat; man-servant, maid-servant; male-child, femalechild; cock-sparrow, hen-sparrow; grandfather, grandmother; Englishman, Englishwoman; merman, mermaid; schoolmaster, schoolmistress.

49. Exercise.

1. Tell which of the following nouns are masculine, which feminine, and which neuter :

Picture, walnut, duchess, Spaniard, letter, sailor, queen, priest, curtain, lioness, nun, captain, widow, wizard, deacon, hospital, banner, brother, countess.

2. Give the feminine gender of the following nouns :—

Man, abbot, horse, hero, tiger, heir, prophet, Jew, male, lord, widower, husband, beau, uncle, host, poet, gander, sultan, master, king, bridegroom, prince, nephew, duke.

3. Give the masculine gender of the following:

Empress, mother, sister, marchioness, woman, she-goat, electress, witch, doe.

4. Fill the blanks in the following examples; the first five with common nouns in the masculine gender:

old.

reigns king of should venerate the

The next five with proper or common nouns in the feminine gender:

Gender shown by different terminations,--by distinguishing word.