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pity. Not only can he gain no lofty improvement without labor, but without it he can gain no tolerable happiness.

MODEL I. "Talent has many a compliment from the bench, but tact touches fees from attorneys and clients.”—London Atlas. This is a compound sentence, consisting of two coördinate principal clauses. They are related by contrast (218, 2), and, hence, readily unite to form one sentence. Let the learner analyze each separately. "But" is an adversative coördinate conjunction, and used to join the second clause to the first, by Rule XI.

It must be coördinate to join clauses of equal rank. It is adversative, since the clauses are not in harmony with each other, but the second restricts the thought expressed by the first, by shutting off, or opposing any such inference as that the mere preeminence of talent with the bench implies universal preeminence. It also shows that the writer intended, by the contrast, to bring the second thought into greater prominence than the first.

"And," in the second clause, is a copulative coördinate conjunction, and is used to unite the two remote elements (159, 2), "from attorneys and [from] clients," by Rule XI.

These two phrases are similar in form, similar in the ideas expressed, equal in rank, equal in emphasis, and in perfect harmony with each other. Hence, they require not only a coördinate, but a copulative conjunction.

MODEL II. "The wolves have been exterminated, and, therefore, the flocks and herds are unmolested."

This is a compound sentence, containing two coördinate clauses,— the second being a partial compound. Let the learner analyze both clauses.

"And," in the first case, is a copulative coördinate conjunction, join. ing the two clauses, as grammatically equal, and in harmony with each other, by Rule XI.

"Therefore" is a causal coördinate conjunction, and is used to show that the second clause is a logical deduction from the first. It conspires with “and” to join the two clauses,—the one grammatically, the other logically, but both coördinately, by Rule XI.

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'And," in the second clause, is a copulative coördinate conjunction, and is used to join the two subjects, flocks" and " herds," by Rule XI. As these are prominent elements of the clause, it is a partial compound.

2. Construct or select other sentences containing coördinate conjunctions, and explain their use.

Models.

3. Correct the following examples by the Cautions:

They confess the power, and wisdom, and love, and goodness of their Creator. John, and James, and Henry, and Charles will return this evening. His conduct was unkind, and unjust, and unmerciful.

He neither came nor was sent for. We pervert the noble faculty of speech, when we use it to the defaming, or to disquiet our neighbors. We hope that we shall hear from him, and that he has returned. I always have, and I always shall be of this opinion. The work was executed with rapidity and promptly. It is a region distinguished by many charming varieties of rural scenery, and which may be termed the Arcadia of Scotland. He retired voluntarily, and a conqueror.

Are we not lazy in our duties or make a Christ of them? In many pursuits we embark with pleasure, and land sorrowfully.

It is a good which neither depends on the will of others, nor on the affluence of external fortune. Either sentences are simple or compound. His fortune has not only suffered by his folly, but his health. This is not merely a question of interest, but of right also.

220. Co-ordinate Constructions.

1. RULE XII. When a verb or pronoun relates to two or more nouns connected by a coördinate conjunction,

(a.) If it agrees with them taken conjointly, it must be in the plural number.

(b.) But if it agrees with them taken separately, it must be of the same number as that which stands next to it.

(c.) If it agrees with one, and not the other, it must take the number of that one.

EXAMPLES. "Charles and his sister were absent, but they were sent for." "Charles or his sister was absent." "Charles or his sisters were absent." "Charles, and not his sister, was absent."

2. In the following cases, nouns in the singular seem to be taken conjointly, and yet the verb and pronoun should be singular,

(a.) When the coördinate nouns denote the same person in different capacities; as, "This great statesman and orator died lamented by all his friends." (b.) When the coördinate nouns are considered separately, by means of such limiting words as each, every, or no; as, "Each day and each hour brings its own duties and trials." "Every book and every paper was taken from its place." "No book and no paper should be left out of its place."

(c.) When the coördinate nouns are distinguished with emphasis by means of not, only, too, as well as, or when there is an emphatic enumeration of individuals; as, 66 George, and not James, is at his task." "Truth, and truth

Coördinate constructions-taken conjointly-separately. Exceptions.

only, is worth seeking for its own sake." "The man, and his servant too, was rewarded." "The father, as well as his son, was in fault." "Thine is the kingdom, and the power, and the glory."

(d.) When the coördinate nouns are regarded by the mind as representing one thing; as, "Bread and milk is excellent food for children." and chaise is in its place."

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3. Thus far reference has been had only to the number of the verb and pronoun. It often happens that the coördinate words are of different persons. When the coördinate parts are of different persons, the verb or pronoun agrees with the first rather than the second, and with the second rather than the third; as, "Thou and thy sons with thee (that is, ye) shall bear the iniquity of your priesthood." "John, thou, and I (that is we) are attached to our country."

4. When the coördinate parts are each singular, and of different genders, several cases may arise,

(a.) The verb may relate to them conjointly, while the pronoun may relate to but one; as, "James and his sister were destroying her bonnet." "James and his sister were destroying his cap."

(b.) The pronoun may relate to them taken conjointly, while the verb relates to them taken separately; as, "James or his sister has destroyed their dictionary," the dictionary being theirs by a joint ownership.

(c.) When the pronoun has a common reference to both coördinate nouns taken conjointly, the gender cannot be distinguished by the pronoun, since the latter is plural, and consequently has, in English, the same form for all genders.

(d.) When the pronoun refers to two or more coördinate nouns taken separately, there is no personal pronoun, in English, applicable to each, and there is an inherent difficulty in constructing the expression properly; as, "John or Ellen has lost his or her pencil." To use his alone, or her alone, would reveal the ownership, which is supposed to be unknown. Hence it does not avail to say that the masculine is preferred to the feminine, and the feminine to the neuter; for either would become explicit, as in case (4, a.). To avoid this difficulty, it is best to recast the sentence, or so construct it as to escape such a dilemma. Yet, contrary to the general rule (202, 5), frequent instances occur in which the pronoun, in such cases, is put in the plural, and thus the gender is concealed; as, "Then shalt thou bring forth that man or that woman unto thy gates, and shalt stone them with stones, till they shall die."

5. When each of the coördinate parts is denoted by the same word, and that a singular noun referring to different objects, and each, except the last, is understood,-being represented by some modifying word, the agreement of the verb or pronoun follows the general rule; as, "A Webster's, a Worcester's, and a Richardson's dictionary were consulted;" that is, three dictionaries. "A literary, a scientific, a wealthy, and a poor man were assembled in one room."

6. Coördinate terms are taken separately, when one is affirmative, and the

Different persons. Coördinate constructions of different persons-genders. Pronouns relating to singular coördinate nouns taken conjointly, separately. When the coördinate parts are the same word.

other negative, or when one is opposed to, or contrasted with, the others; in such cases, if both, or all the terms are plural, the pronoun or verb must, of course, be plural. When a verb or pronoun relates to two coördinate terms, connected by as well as, save, but, but not, or and not, it should agree with the former, and be understood to the latter, whatever be its number; as, "The minutest insect, as well as the largest quadruped, derives its life from the same omnipotent source;" "None, but he, can heal the malady of the soul;" "There was no stranger with us in the house, save we two in the house."

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7. Two terms may be coördinate logically, but not grammatically; as, "Godliness with contentment is great gain": Godliness and contentment, &c. In such cases, the verb or pronoun should agree with the term to which it refers grammatically.

221. Exercise.

1. Analyze the following sentences, and point out and parse the verbs and pronouns which illustrate the rule :—

Where was it when winds and clouds were his only visitors, and when the sun and blue heavens by day, and the moon and stars by night, alone looked down and beheld it, the same as they behold it now? One day the poor woman and her idiot boy were missed from the market-place. Neither his vote, his influence, nor his purse was ever withheld from the cause in which he had engaged. Neither the captain nor the sailors were saved. Whether one person or more were concerned in the business, does not appear. Every insect, and every bird, was hushed to silence.

NOTE.-For Models, see (203, 1), and (205, 1).

2. Construct or select other examples to illustrate this rule.

222. Prepositions.

1. RULE XIII. A preposition is used to show the relation of its object to the word on which the object depends; as, "George went INTO the garden ;" "A life of virtue is a life of happiness."

2. The noun or pronoun following the preposition is always dependent on some term, usually a preceding one, and the preposition is used to show that dependence. Properly speaking, the objective is not the object of the preposition, but of the preceding term. In the case of the transitive verb, there are two terms, the verb itself and the objective, and the relation between them is closer than between those in which the preposition is used; the objective is not called the object of that relation, but rather of the antecedent term, the verb. Yet custom makes the noun the object of the preposition.

as,

3. Sometimes the antecedent term is omitted, and sometimes the subsequent; "In a word, he is ruined" To express all in a word, &c. "He looked

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Two terms logically but not grammatically coördinate. Prepositions show a dependence. Antecedent or subsequent term omitted.

around" supply [him]. When the object is understood, the preposition is usually parsed as an adverb. For, used before an infinitive and its objective subject, when the group is taken as the subject of a proposition, has no antecedent term; as, "For him to lie is base." The to of the infinitive, when both together constitute the subject, represents no relation to an antecedent term; as, "To lie is base."

4. Between and betwixt refer to two objects; among and amongst to more than two; as, "He walked between the trees" (two trees). "He walked among the trees" (many trees).

5. Sometimes the preposition is involved in the antecedent term, or, at least, is suggested by it; as, near [to], like [to].

6. When the preposition is placed at the beginning of a sentence, or when, with its object, it precedes the antecedent term of the relation which it shows, the relation may be easily discovered by reärranging the sentence. Thus, "Of all the topics involved in this theme, it will be impossible for me to speak" It will be impossible for me to speak of all the topics, &c.

CAUTION. In expressing the relations between words, be careful to employ appropriate prepositions. Say, "That is different from what I expected," not, "Different to what I expected."

223. Exercise.

1. Analyze the following sentences, and parse the prepositions :

I call to you with all my voice. From end to end, from cliff to lake, 'twas free. Her tears were now flowing without control. She is like some tender tree, the pride and beauty of the grove-graceful in its form, bright in its foliage, but with the worm preying at its heart.

MODEL. "Of all his errors, the most serious was, perhaps, the choice of a champion"="The most serious [error] of all his errors, was, perhaps, the choice of a champion."

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This is a simple sentence. "Error" understood is the subject, and is limited by "the," "most serious," and "of all his errors." (Describe and classify each.) Was choice" is the predicate, of which "was" is the copula, and "choice" is the attribute; "was" is limited by the modal adverb "perhaps," used to give a degree of uncertainty to the assertion; "choice" is limited by "the" and "of a champion." (Describe and classify each.)

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'Of" is a preposition, and, in the first instance, shows the relation of "errors" to "error" understood; in the second instance, it shows the relation of "champion" to "choice." Rule XIII. (Repeat it.)

2. Construct examples of your own to illustrate the use of the prepositions when the antecedent term is a NOUN, an ADJECTIVE, a VERB, an ADverb.

For and to. Between, betwixt, among, amongst. Position of the preposition. Model.

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