(d.) The copula and substantive attribute; as, "I am he;" "She is the prin

CC88."

(e.) The copula and a phrase; as, "He is to write."

(f.) The copulative verb (82, 9), and either of these attributes; as, "He is called John."

3. The complex subject, except when the simple subject is verbal, contains an adjective element, which may be

(1.) SIMPLE, embracing

(a.) A limiting adjective; as, "This man came."

(b.) A qualifying adjective; as, " Old timber decays."

(c.) A noun used as an adjective; as, "Gold watches were sold."

(d.) A noun in apposition; as, "King Latinus ruled."

(e.) A noun or pronoun in the possessive; as, “Joseph's brethren wept;" "His father came."

(f.) Two or more separate elements of either kind; as, "The first star appeared." "Three young men were employed." "The first three old houses were destroyed." "The apostle Paul preached at Rome." "Isaac's son Jacob deceived him."

(2.) COMPLEX, formed

(a.) By joining an adverb to an adjective; as, "A truly great man has died."

(b.) By joining an adjective or participle to a noun; as "Bunyan, the distinguished author, was imprisoned ;" "The old man's daughter wept."

(c.) By joining an adjective phrase to a noun; as, "Galileo, the inventor of the telescope, was persecuted."

3. The complex predicate may contain,—

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(a.) A simple direct object; as, 'Raleigh commanded an expedition;" "They disappointed us.'

(b.) A simple indirect object; as, "Were not his talents given him ?” (c.) A double object, consisting of an object and attribute (word or phrase); as, "They made him an officer." "They made him sick." "They made him labor." "They taught him to read."

(d.) A direct and an indirect object; as, "We gave him a book.” asked us to go."

(e.) A complex object; as, "We obtained delicious fruit."

"They

NOTE.-The object may be complex in the same way as the subject. (See 3. above.)

(f.) The double object may be complex in either or both of its parts; as, "Napoleon made his brother Joseph king of Spain." Here "brother" is modified by "his" and by "Joseph," and "king" by the phrase "of Spain." 4. The complex predicate may contain,—

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(a.) A simple adverb of place, time, &c.; as, They came late."

(b.) A simple adverbial phrase of place, time, &c.; as, "We left at night." (c.) A complex adverbial element, consisting of single words; as, They rode very fast."

Simple sentences. Their elements.

(d.) A complex adverbial element, consisting of a word and a phrase; as, "He appeared agreeably to promise."

(e.) A complex adverbial element, consisting of two phrases; as, "He walked in the garden of the king."

(f.) Either form of the objective element (4, a. b. c. d. &c.), and either form of the adverbial (5, a. b. c. &c.).

176. Exercise.

1. Separate the following simple sentences into their elements :

A duty has been performed. The Bunker Hill monument is finished. The peasantry sinks before the invader. A jailor of the dauphin of France was named Simon. Paul, the apostle to the Gentiles, was sent a prisoner to Rome. I have spoken of the loftiness of its purpose. The powerful speaker stands motionless before us. How beautiful is all this visible world! Poetry has a natural alliance with our best affections. The teacher gave a reward to the best scholar. I bring thee here my fortress-keys.

177. Elements of Complex Sentences.

1. The elements of a complex sentence are clauses, of which one, at least, must be principal, and one subordinate; as, "I am not now to discuss the question-whether the souls of men are naturally equal."

2. The principal clause should be regarded, however, as a simple sentence, and the subordinate, as one of its elements.

3. Thus considered, the complex sentence may have principal and subordinate elements, either of which may be words, phrases, or clauses, and either may be simple, complex, or compound.

178. Varieties of Complex Sentences.

1. The complex sentence has the same varieties of word and phrase elements as the simple sentence. (See 175.)

2. The subordinate clause, as substantive, adjective, or adverb (156, 2), may form either of the five elements of the sentence (157, 1).

3. The subject may be a substantive clause in any of its varieties (170, 3).

(a.) A statement quoted directly; as, "I must leave to-morrow,' was his reply."

Elements of complex sentences. Varieties of clauses.

Clauses-simple, complex, compound.

(b.) A command quoted directly; as, "Follow me,' was our Lord's command."

(c.) An abstract statement quoted indirectly, and introduced by "that;" as, "That the earth revolves on its axis has been clearly proved" = It has been

clearly proved, &c.

(d.) A direct question quoted directly; as, "Will he do it?' is the question." (e.) A direct question quoted indirectly; as, "Whether he will do it is doubt

ful."

(f.) An indirect question quoted directly; as, “Who was the author of Junius's Letters ?' is still a question."

(g.) An indirect question quoted indirectly; as, "Who was the author of Junius's Letters has never been satisfactorily determined."

4. The predicate may be the copula and a substantive clause in any of the varieties above; as, "A second mistake upon the subject of happiness is, that it is to be found in prosperity."

5. The adjective element may be

(1.) The adjective clause introduced by the relative pronoun used as (a.) Subject of its own clause; as, "His fame, WHICH is bounded by no country, will be confined to no age."

(b.) Adjective element; as, “I could a tale unfold wHOSE lightest word would harrow up thy soul."

(c.) Single object; as, "The lesson WHICH she learned was too long." (d.) Double object; as, "The man WHOм they call the JANITOR."

(e.) Adverbial element (with a preposition); as, "The church IN WHICH they met was dimly lighted."

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(2.) A substantive clause in any of its varieties used as an adjective; as, The question, 'What shall we do?" " "The opinion that the planets are inhabited."

(3.) An adverbial clause used as an adjective to limit a noun; as, "I remember the time when my existence commenced."

6. The objective element may be a substantive clause in any of the varieties above (3); as, "He knew how to conquer by waiting."

will he give to my friend the king of Norway?' asked the brother." 7. The adverbial element may be an adverbial clause denoting (a.) Place; as, "Whither I go, ye cannot come."

(b.) Time; as, "While I was musing, the fire burned."

... What

(c.) Cause; as, "Ye shall not see me, because I go unto my Father." (d.) Manner; as, "Speak as you think," "Mary is as old as her cousin." NOTE. For all the varieties of the adverbial clause, see Analysis, Chap. III.

179. Elements of Compound Sentences.

1. The elements of compound sentences are principal clauses (150, 11, 18); as, "I was hungry, and ye gave no meat."

Elements of complex sentences. Compound sentences.

2. The added clause may be either copulative, adversative, alternative, or causal.

3. The component parts may be either simple or complex sentences. Thus,- -" The man was communicative enough, but nothing was distinct in his mind;" "We must not expect that our roses will grow without thorns; but then they are useful and instructive thorns, which, by pricking the fingers of the too hasty plucker, teach future caution."

4. Sometimes a compound sentence consists of members,—each being formed by a close union of its clauses, but in a measure separated from each other; as, "The ox knoweth his owner, and the ass his master's crib: but Israel. doth not know; my people doth not consider."

The first two propositions form the first member, and the last two the second.

180. Varieties of Compound Sentences.

1. COPULATIVE.

(a.) Without emphasis, and with a simple connective; as, "The rain is over, and the sun shines."

(b.) With the second clause rendered emphatic, by an associated connective (143, 5, 6, c); as, "She sings; [and] besides she plays skilfully."

(c.) With the second clause not only rendered emphatic, but pointed to, and more closely connected by means of a correlative; as, "Not only am I instructed by this exercise, but I am also invigorated."

2. ADVERSATIVE.

(a.) Denoting opposition or contrast; as, "He did not return to his parents, but he persisted in wandering among strangers."

(b.) Denoting some limitation or restriction; as, "The army was victorious, but the general was slain."

(c.) Denoting opposition or restriction with emphasis expressed by a correlative or an associated connective; as, "The delinquent has been repeatedly admonished, but still he is as negligent as ever."

3. ALTERNATIVE.

(a.) Simply offering or denying a choice; as, "We must fight, or our liberties are lost."

(b.) Offering or denying a choice with emphasis; as, "Learn your lesson, or otherwise you must lose your rank;" "Neither hath this man sinned, nor his parents."

4. CAUSAL.

NOTE. Causal, coördinate propositions are generally placed in both a copulative and causal relation to the former; as, "The south wind blows [and] therefore there must be rain." The causal connective may therefore be considered as associated with some conjunction expressed or understood. Yet for, therefore, hence, whence, and other illative conjunctions, are sometimes the only connectives.

Copulative, adversative, alternative, causal. Members., Elements of compound sentences.

181. Exercise.

Separate the following sentences into their elements, pointing out the COMPLEX and the COMPOUND sentences, and the PRINCIPAL and SUBORDINATE clauses:

Our ancestors came to the land, when fifty centuries had held reign, with no pen to write their history. Silence, which no occupation of civilized life had broken, was in all its borders, and had been from creation. The lofty oak had grown through its lingering age, and decayed, and perished, without name or record. The storm had risen and roared in the wilderness, and none had caught its sublime inspiration. The fountains had flowed on; the mighty river had poured its useless waters; the cataract had lifted up its thundering to the march of time, and no eye had seen it, but that of the wild tenants of the desert.-Dewey. Can I forget that I have been branded as an outlaw? The sun shines, but they behold it not. Though he were a son, yet learned he obedience. We have met the enemy, and they are ours.

182. Elements of Contracted Sentences.

1. A contracted sentence is one which is derived from a compound or a complex sentence.

Thus, "Heaven and earth shall pass away," is derived from "Heaven shall pass away, and earth shall pass away." So the sentence, "The benefit arising to us from an enlarged understanding cannot well be overrated," is derived from "The benefit which arises to us from an enlarged understanding, cannot well be overrated."

2. Contracted sentences are

(a.) Partial compounds, when they are derived from compound sen

tences.

(b.) Sentences with abridged propositions, when they are derived from complex sentences.

3. A compound sentence may be contracted when its clauses have a common part; as, "The sun stood still, and the moon stood still" sun and the moon stood still.”

"The

4. To derive a partial from a full compound, unite into one compound the parts not found in each clause, and to this join the common part, changing the number of the verb if necessary.

EXAMPLE." Industry is essential to happiness, honesty is essential to happiness, and temperance is essential to happiness": "Industry, honesty, and temperance are essential to happiness."

=

5. A complex sentence may be contracted by abridging its subordi

A contracted sentence. Partial compound. Abridged propositions.