་ SYNTAX. 147. Definitions and Distinctions. 1. SYNTAX treats of the construction of sentences. 2. A sentence is a thought expressed in words; as, "Socrates was unmoved when the sentence of death was pronounced against him." -66 3. Thus, it appears that a sentence (Lat. "sententia," a thought) includes a thought and its expression. A thought consists of related ideas, an expression of related words; and, if every idea were expressed by a corresponding word, a sentence would be correctly analyzed by reducing it to its separate words. Thus, in the sentence,- "Peter wept bitterly," or (analyzed), "Peter-wept-bitterly," the three ideas-the person, what he did, and how he did it, are expressed by as many words; but in the sentence above-"Socrates-was unmoved-when the sentence of death was pronounced against him,"-three full ideas are expressed by twelve words. 4. In analyzing a sentence, therefore, we must be governed either by its ideas, and, of necessity, group all words employed to express a single idea,-or, by its words, and thus, in many cases, lose sight of an inseparable idea by reducing its expression to single words. Thus, in the example above (3.) the element of time is expressed by a group containing nine words; yet, to one who should not first consider the group as a whole, but take its words separately, the idea of time would scarcely be suggested. In the one case, the sentence is considered logically,—in the other grammatically. 5. Each word, however, has its office, being used either alone, or as part of a group to express an element of the thought. A system of syntax, to be complete, should, therefore, treat of the sentence, (1.) as a whole,‚—an expression of the thought; (2.) as a combination of words—or groups of words,—expressions of ideas or elements of the thought; and (3.) as an assemblage of mere words, each performing its peculiar office in forming the component parts of the structure. Hence, the subject is naturally divided into syntax of sentences, syntax of elements, and syntax of words. Syntax. A sentence. Thought and its expression. Ideas and words. Analysis based upon ideas-upon words. Office of single words. sentences, of elements, of words. Syntax of (139) SYNTAX OF SENTENCES. 148. Sentences classified by their use as a whole. 1. All sentences, considered as a whole, are either (a.) DECLARATIVE; as, “The truth will prevail." (b.) INTERROGATIVE; as, "Wilt thou be made whole ?" (c.) IMPERATIVE, as, "Put up thy sword into the sheath;" or (d.) EXCLAMATORY; as, "How art thou fallen!" 2. A declarative sentence is used to declare something either as real and absolute, or as possible, probable, obligatory, or necessary; as, “I have found favor in the sight of the king;" "It may rain;" "We should pay our debts;" "The work must be done." 3. The declarative sentence forms the main body of every species of composition; it is that form of the sentence which is recognised by logicians as a proposition. It may take either the positive or the negative form; its mode may be either indicative or potential (89, 10, 11). as, 4. The interrogative sentence is one which asks a question; "Doth my father yet live?" 5. Interrogative sentences are used (a.) To obtain information; as, "Where are those mine enemies ?" 6. The latter are called questions of appeal, and are used with a negative when the speaker expects an affirmative answer; as, "Hath he said it, and will he not do it?" without a negative when he expects a negative answer; as, "Can a mother forget her child?" Such sentences imply a strong affirmation or negation, and, hence, when converted into declarative sentences, the foregoing rule should be reversed; as, 'God doth not pervert judgment." 66 do it." 66 He hath said it, and he will 7. Interrogative sentences may take either of two forms;(a.) They may be formed without an interrogative word; as, "Will you ride to town to-day?" or, (b.) They may be introduced by one of the interrogatives, who, which, what, where, when, why, how, &c. (78, 2, 5). 8. The former are called direct,—are answered by yes or no, and are generally uttered with the rising inflection at the close. 9. The latter are called indirect,- —are answered by some part of a declarative sentence called the responsive or answer; as, "Who is walk Sentences classified. Declarative and interrogative sentences. Direct and indirect questions. '' ing in the garden?" Ans. "I" (am walking in the garden). These sentences close with the falling inflection. 10. An imperative sentence is one which is used to express a command, an entreaty, an exhortation, or a prayer; as, "Let justice be done;" "Do extricate my suffering friend;" "Let love be without dissimulation;" "Thy kingdom come." 11. The imperative sentence may take two forms, (a.) The verb may be in the imperative; as, "Depart in peace." (b.) It may be in the potential; as, "May he depart in peace." 12. An imperative sentence of the same form is a command, an entreaty, or a prayer, according to the relative rank of the parties (89, 14). 13. An exclamatory sentence is either a declarative, an interrogative, or an imperative sentence, so uttered as to express strong emotion; as, "The foe has come !" "Was it not strange!" "Make haste!" 14. Exclamatory sentences are often so elliptical as to become mere fragments; as, "Strange!" "Impossible!" "To arms!" 15. Exclamatory expressions are often of the nature of interjections; as "Mercy!" "How strange!" 16. When a sentence is composed of two different classes, it is called a mixed sentence; as, "Give me a place to stand, and I will raise the world;""They entered, indeed, upon the work, but why did they not continue ?" 149. Exercise. Con Point out the different kinds of sentences in the following examples. struct or select others like them. Change any of them from one class of sentence to another. NOTE. The learner should first read the sentence attentively, and then consider, whether, as a whole, it declares something, asks a question, expresses a command, or utters an exclamation. Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain. Though he slay me, yet will I trust him. What think ye of Christ? Whose son is he? Would God I had died for thee, O Absalom! my son! my son! Is this a dagger that I see before me? The way was long, the wind was cold. Strike! till the last armed foe expires! Great Hierarch! tell thou the silent sky, And tell the stars, and tell the rising sun, Earth, with her thousand voices, praises God.-Coleridge. Imperative sentences. Exclamatory sentences. Mixed sentences. They tell us, sir, that we are weak-unable to cope with so formidable an adversary. But when shall we be stronger? Will it be the next week, or the next year? Shall we gather strength by irresolution and inaction? Sir, we are not weak, if we make a proper use of those means which the God of nature hath placed in our power. The battle, sir, is not to the strong alone: it is to the vigilant, the active, the brave. If we were base enough to desire it, it is now too late to retire from the contest. The war is inevitable-and let it come. Our brethren are already in the field. Why stand we here idle? Is life so dear, or peace so sweet, as to be purchased at the price of chains and slavery? Forbid it, Almighty God!—I know not what course others may take; but as for me-give me liberty, or give me death!-Patrick Henry. 150. Sentences classified by their Propositions. 1. All sentences consist either of a single proposition, or of two or more united propositions, and are divided into (a.) SIMPLE; as, "The wind blows." (b.) COMPLEX, as, "When the wind blows, the trees bend." (c.) COMPOUND; as, "The wind blows, and the trees bend." 2. A proposition is the combination of a subject and a predicate; as, "The ocean roars;" "Are you warm?" "Obey your parents;" "How feeble is man!" 3. The subject represents that of which something is affirmed; as, "The lilies fade." 4. The predicate represents that which is affirmed; as, "The waves dash." 5. The predicate sometimes represents what is denied of the subject; as, "The door was not shut;" "The time will never come;" and hence propositions are divided into affirmative and negative. But for grammatical purposes, to deny may be considered the same as to affirm a negative. In general, to affirm, as here used, applies to every species of proposition, the interrogative, the imperative, and the exclamatory, as well as the declarative (148, 1). 6. A proposition may be used, (a.) As a sentence; as, "The mists of the morn have passed away;" or, (b.) As a mere element (147, 5); as, "Seek not the honor which cometh from men." Sentences classified. A proposition. The subject. The predicate. Uses of a proposition-as a sentence-as an element. 7. A proposition is a sentence, when, independently and alone, it expresses a thought (147, 2) of the speaker; as, "Coming events cast their shadows before.' 8. A proposition is an element of a sentence, when, instead of a thought of the speaker, it expresses a mere idea or part of the thought; as, "I know that my Redeemer liveth:" 9. Hence, a sentence is always a proposition, either alone or combined with another, but a proposition is not always a sentence. In complex sentences, at least, one proposition is used to express merely an idea. In compound sentences, at least two propositions are used to express thoughts. 10. A proposition used as a sentence, is a simple sentence however much it may be extended; as, “I call upon the humanity of my country to vindicate the national character;" but, when used as an element, it is considered simple only when consisting of its essential parts (163, 1); namely, the subject and predicate, or subject, predicate, and connective, without modifying words; as, "Be silent that you may hear." NOTE. The learner cannot too carefully mark the distinction between a proposition and a sentence. The same proposition may be a sentence in one use, and a mere element in another; as, "The day dawned;" "When the day dawned, we embarked." 11. United propositions are divided into principal and subor dinate. 12. A principal proposition contains the principal or leading assertion; and is that on which the subordinate depends; as, "When spring comes, the flowers will bloom." a 13. A subordinate proposition is one which, by means of subordinate connective, depends upon some part of the principal; as, "When spring comes, the flowers will bloom." 14. United propositions are called clauses. A sentence containing but one proposition (7) cannot be said to have clauses. Hence, though a clause is always a proposition, a proposition is a clause only when combined with another. 15. Two united propositions are said to be (a.) Similar, when both alike express a thought of the speaker, or when both express a mere element of the thought; as, "Talent is power, [but] tact is skill;" "I could not tell when he came, nor when he went." (b.) Dissimilar, when one expresses a thought of the speaker, and the other a mere element of it; as, "He who assumes the guidance of others, should govern himself." Principal and subordinate propositions. Similar and dissimilar proposi tions. |