Other concrete illustrations of this fact are at hand. For example. Mullhall gives the annual earning capacity of the inhabitants of several European countries as follows:

The effect of education upon the accumulation of wealth is equally notable. The figures given by Mullhall for the total wealth per inhabitant of these several European nations are:

Similarly, in America, Massachusetts, with slightly smaller population than Texas, has $4,956,000,000 of accumulated wealth to $2,836,000,000 possessed by Texas. That this is not altogether due to the fact that Massachusetts is a much older State than Texas is shown by the fact that Wisconsin, a comparatively new State, with only about two-thirds the population of Texas, has an equal amount of wealth; and California, a newer State, with only two-thirds the population, has $4,115,000,000 of wealth. All three of these richer States for years spent two or three times as much per child on education as Texas spent.

The relation of productive power to education is shown by the enormously increased rate of production that has come about everywhere since education became more generally diffused. The total wealth accumulated in America from 1492 to 1860, a period of 368 years, was $514 per capita. From then till 1904, a period of only 44 years, this increased to $1,318 per capita, or an addition in 44 years of $802 per capita. Since that time the increase has been even more striking. This increase is partly due to increased valuations or the smaller purchasing power of the dollar; to the use of accumulated capital, and to many other things; but after due allowance is made for all these the conclusion is inevitable that the education of the Nation is largely responsible for vastly increasing the productive power of its citizens. The productive power of illiterate countries is not increasing at such rates.

1 Industries and Wealth of Nations, pp. 391 and 393, published in 1896.

2 All figures are from the Special Report of the Census Office on Wealth, Debt and Taxation, 1907, p. 37.

3 Figures from the Special Report of the Census Bureau on Wealth, Debt, and Taxation, 1907, p. 9.

Why educated nations produce more. That there must be this intimate relation between education and earning power is obvious as soon as consideration is given to the demands of the processes of modern industry. The Asiatic farmer, with his stick plow, makes 6 cents a day,' and the illiterate Russian peasant with his primitive implements and methods earns 14 cents, while the American farmer earns many times these sums because his improved methods and implements, made possible by education, have increased his efficiency. The illiterate race is necessarily restricted to the bullock and the stick plow, while the educated nation mines and smelts ores, manufactures the reaper and the traction engine, fertilizes the soil, rotates crops, breeds better stock and better seeds by scientific methods, rises superior to flood, drought, and disease, and multiplies efficiency a hundred fold.

Natural resources worthless without education.-Even a bounteous harvest in a fertile section would avail little for an illiterate people who could not build the engines or boats to transport it, or understand the processes necessary for its preservation against a future day of want. Without the knowledge of chemistry and metallurgy, rich mineral deposits are but so much worthless rock. Without tools and machinery and educated skill to turn them into houses, furniture, and implements for man, vast timber resources are but so many trees cumbering the soil; without educated brain and skilled hands the fertile soil, timbered land, water power, and mineral deposit must forever lie idle or be ignorantly squandered.

Comparison of illiterate and educated workers.-Horace Mann vividly pictures the power of education in his statement about the savage and transportation. Modifying his statement, it can be said: The savage can fasten only a dozen pounds on his back and swim the river. When he is educated enough to make an axe, fell a tree, and build a raft, he can carry many times a dozen pounds. As soon as he learns to rip logs into boards and build a boat, he multiplies his power a hundred fold; and when to this he adds mathematics, chemistry, physics, and other modern sciences he can produce the monster steel leviathans that defy wind, storm, and distance, and bear to the uttermost parts of the earth burdens a million fold greater than the uneducated savage could carry across the narrow river.

1 Report on taxation, Proceedings and Addresses, Nat. Educ. Assoc., July, 1905, pp. 27-28:

"In India only 5 per cent can read and write, and there the men receive for farm work, in the Madras district, 6 to 8 cents a day; women, 4 to 6 cents; children, 3 to 5, the laborers boarding themselves" (pp. 6 and 16).

"If Asia had a Panama Canal to dig, she would dig it with picks, hoes, and spades, and tote out the earth in buckets. Nothing but human bone and sinew would be employed, and the men would be paid little, because without tools and knowledge they must always earn little. But America puts brains, science, steam, electricity, machinery into her Big Ditch-tools and knowledge, in other words, and she pays good wages because a man thus equipped does the work of 10 men whose only force is the force of muscle.”— "Asia's Greatest Lesson for the South," Clarence H. Poe, pp. 10-11.

The efficiency of an illiterate people in competition with an educated nation is as the crooked stick against the sulky plow; the sickle against the reaper; the bullock cart against the express train, the ocean greyhound, and the aeroplane; the pony messenger against the telegraph, telephone, and wireless; the individual harangue against the printing press, the newspaper, the library; the spinning wheel against the factory; the pine fagot against the electric light; the peddling of skins and herbs from the oxcart against the bank, the check book, the railroad, the department store; the log hut against the steel skyscraper; the unaided eye against the microscope and telescope; incantations and magic against the chemist, the hospital, the modern physician and surgeon. Take away from one entire generation all education, and society must revert to the stick plow, the oxcart, and such primitive means, because steel implements, locomotives, steamships, electricity, telephones, telegraph, waterworks, steel buildings, mining and chemical industries, factories, modern sanitation, hygiene and medicine, books, newspapers, courts of justice, and laws that protect property and defend the rights of the weak are all impossible without education and are efficient only in proportion as educated intelligence is applied to them.1

The necessity for education rapidly increasing.-The necessity for education has increased and will continue to increase with the advance in the complexity of the processes of civilization. Because of the unparalleled progress in the arts and sciences during the past fifty years the need for education has in a generation multiplied many fold. For example, a century ago a transportation system was little more than a wagon and a driver who knew the road. Now, in handling a problem of transportation, experts in traffic must first determine whether a road in that place will be worth while, and what kind of road will be most economical and efficient; experts in finance must provide the tremendous sums needed to build the road; civil engineers must lay it out; bridge engineers plan the bridges; chemical engineers test the materials; mills and factories with scores of chemical and physical experts make the rails, build the locomotives and steel cars; and a host of traffic experts, auditors, accountants,

1 The advantage to each of the education of all is admirably brought out in the following paragraph from Mr. Clarence Poe: "You prosper just in proportion to the prosperity of the average man with whom you are brought into business contact. If the masses of the people are poor and ignorant, every individual, every interest, every industry in the community will feel and register the pulling-down power of their backwardness as inevitably as the thermometer records the temperature of the air. The merchant will have poorer trade, the doctor and lawyer smaller fees, the railroad diminished traffic, the banks smaller deposits, the preacher and teacher smaller salaries, and so on. Every man who through ignorance, lack of training, or by reason of any other hindering cause, is producing or earning only half as much as he ought, by his inefficiency is making everybody else in the community poorer."-"Asia's Greatest Lesson for the South," Clarence H. Poe, pp. 3-4.

and specially trained managers and clerks, telegraphers, engineers, conductors, and others keep the trains moving with safety and with profit. In like manner the farmer can no longer merely exhaust one fertile piece of fresh soil after another by crude methods of agriculture. Intelligent rotation must be planned, soil must be conserved and built up, improved stock and seed must be bred; methods of cultivation that stimulate growth and conserve moisture and fertility must be practiced; markets must be studied and considered in planting; new methods of marketing must be used, accounts must be kept, and homes must be made healthful. If this is not done the landowner will soon lose his land and become a tenant and the tenant become a day laborer. In law, in medicine, in teaching, in manufacturing, in trade and industry of all kinds, this same increased demand for education is found.

A banker's opinion.-Speaking in 1905 at Girard College, Mr. Vanderlip said:

The mental equipment of a business man needs to be greater to-day than was ever before necessary. Just as the sphere of the business man's actions has broadened with the advent of rapid transportation, telegraphs, cables, and telephones, so have the needs of broad understanding of sound principles increased. It was steam processes of transportation and production that really made technical education necessary. The electric dynamo created the demand for educated electrical engineers. So the railroad, the fast steamship, the electric current in the telephone and cable, and the great economic fact of gigantic and far-reaching business combinations are making the science of business a different thing from any conception of commerce which could have been had when Girard was the most successful of business men. The enlarged scope of business is demanding better trained men, who understand principles. New forces have made large scale production, and we need men who can comprehend the relation of that production in the world of markets. There has been introduced such complexity into modern business and such a high degree of specialization that the young man who begins without the foundation of an exceptional training is in danger of remaining a mere clerk or bookkeeper. Commercial and industrial affairs are conducted on so large a scale that the neophyte has little chance to learn broadly, either by observation or experience. He is put at a single task; the more expert he becomes at it the more likely it is that he will be kept at it, unless he has had a training in his youth which has fitted him to comprehend in some measure the relation of his task to those which others are doing.

Business growing more complicated.-An excellent illustration of the manner in which modern business has widened the scope of its demands for training and broad education is given by J. T. Young in speaking of several modern industries:1

The production of oil has led to an especially interesting series of auxiliary enterprises. Crude and refined oil, petroleum jelly, gas, gasoline, and light oils, fine and heavy lubrication oils, wax, paraffin, chewing gum, oil cake,

1 Annals Amer. Acad. Pol. and Soc. Sci. 28, pp. 28-37, "Business and Science," by J. T. Young.

barrels, tin cans, bags, and wooden boxes are all manufactured in the various departments and plants of the industry. In addition, it has proved profitable to own and operate banks, steamship lines, and various other commercial undertakings.

In gas manufacture, tar, briquettes, light oils, dyes, creosote, and coke are resultant by-products leading to the development of new markets and new departments of business. The most successful meat-packing concerns have been directed by men who are able to develop extensive "allied" industries. Besides the usual dressed fresh, canned, dried, and smoked meats, the packing interests manufacture soups, meat extracts, sausage, lard, toilet, laundry, and wool soap, gelatin, pepsin, glue, fertilizer, etc., and operate printing establishments, can, box, and paint factories, extensive refrigerator car lines, and meat, fruit, and vegetable refrigerating plants. In addition to the manufacturing side of the business, a wholesale organization has been built up which distributes some of the products throughout practically the entire domestic market.

The manager of a modern business enterprise of any size must be able to trace the exact cost of production of each article, study the markets of the world in order to make wise contracts for sale and purchase, must know how to advertise economically and create or increase his market, must be able to organize and reorganize the departments of his plant, borrow money advantageously, secure favorable transportation rates, stop wastes, work up by-products, and do many other things that were unknown a few years ago. Without the wide use of former waste products, few large enterprises could now maintain themselves. Indeed, so carefully have these been studied that the by-products are at times the chief source of profit, in some cases modern science turning what was formerly a source of trouble and expense into one of great revenue, as was the case in the turning of the injurious sulphur fumes given off in smelting into sulphuric acid. The Tennessee Copper Co., of Copper Hill, Tenn., several years ago was sued for heavy damages by owners of neighboring land because the sulphurous fumes given off by the plant did great injury to the trees and other vegetation around. The expert chemist was called in, and he, by his superior education, was able not merely to stop the injury to the vegetation but to convert these sulphurous fumes into sulphuric acid, one of the profitable byproducts of the smelter.

EDUCATION AND INDIVIDUAL SUCCESS.

Who's who in America.-That national wealth and industry are dependent primarily on education and must in the nature of things become more and more dependent thereupon as civilization advances is now so obvious that further illustration is unnecessary. That individual education is an equally vital factor in individual efficiency and success in the varied walks of practical life is a matter about which the facts are not so obvious, as the occasional large successes of com