be regarded as the basis of that clearly defined Concert of Europe which manifested its existence in the Fifth Coalition, the Holy Alliance, the Quadruple Alliance of 1815, and the long series of subsequent European Congresses. The immediate effect was the overthrow of Napoleon, who abdicated on April 11, 1814.1

VII. THE FIFTH COALITION AGAINST FRANCE, 1815

The downfall of the Napoleonic Empire was followed by the conclusion of the Peace of Paris (May 31, 1814) and by the summoning of the Congress of Vienna which assembled on November 3, 1814. At the Congress many problems were settled easily and harmoniously; but two questions, viz. the fate of Poland and that of Saxony, caused so serious a schism that early in 1815 an outbreak of war seemed to be imminent. These dissensions among the Allies encouraged Napoleon to attempt the recovery of his lost authority over France. His return put an end at once to all dissensions among his enemies. A common declaration was issued at Vienna on March 13, 1815, in which Napoleon was declared an outlaw and a disturber of the repose of the world. On March 25, 1815, a more formal treaty of alliance was drawn up between the four great Allies; each of them agreed to raise and maintain an army of 150,000 men,2 and took a pledge not to cease from war until Napoleon should be crushed, deposed, and effectively banished."

The main part of this agreement was merely a renewal

1 Martens, Nouveau Recueil, vol. i, p. 696.

2 Great Britain had the alternative of paying £30 per head for every man short of her contingent.

3 Martens, Nouveau Recueil, vol. ii, pp. 110 sqq.

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of the Treaty of Chaumont of the preceding year. a few weeks, most of the European Powers had expressed their assent and had joined the anti-Napoleonic Alliance.1 Long, however, before the vast forces at the disposal of the Allies had been mobilized, the Hundred Days' campaign had been fought, and Napoleon was once again a fugitive. His internment at St. Helena brought to a close his powerful and disturbing influence upon the course of world-politics; and the second Peace of Paris (November 20, 1815) restored tranquillity to Europe. The terms accorded to France were much more severe than those of the first Peace concluded the year before. It was no longer possible to advance the mitigating theory that the French people were the innocent victims of a Corsican tyranny; they had shown a far too general and spontaneous enthusiasm on the return of Napoleon.2 Hence it seemed to be necessary not only to mulct them of a heavy indemnity, but also to arrange that for some time to come they should remain under the strict surveillance of the Allies. Thus the close union organized at Chaumont in 1814 and confirmed at Vienna in 1815 was perpetuated and made actively operative in a new Quadruple Alliance, which was signed on the same day as was the Second Peace of Paris,--November 20, 1815.

1 Martens, Nouveau Recueil, vol. ii, pp. 124 sqq. The dates of the accessions of the various Powers were as follows:-Hanover April 7, 1815; Portugal April 8, 1815; Sardinia April 9, 1815; Bavaria April 15, 1815; Princes and Towns of Germany April 27, 1815; Low Countries April 28, 1815; Baden May 11, 1815; Switzerland May 20, 1815; Hesse May 23, 1815; Saxony May 27, 1815; Württemberg May 30, 1815; Denmark September 1, 1815.

2 For a summary of the treaties, see Koch and Schoell, Traités, vol. xi, pp. 498 sqq.

VIII. THE HOLY ALLIANCE, 1815

Before this formal alliance of Austria, Britain, Prussia, and Russia was defined and confirmed, another remarkable coalition of a very different kind had been inaugurated by the Tsar Alexander I. Alexander was a man of unbalanced mind, much addicted to moods, and liable to be dominated temporarily by personalities stronger and more extreme than his own. In 1815 the prevailing determinant of his opinions and actions was the Baroness Krudener of Riga, a German mystic, who was genuinely eager to see the affairs of nations governed by the same principles of Christian ethics as those which should regulate the private conduct of individual believers. Under her inspiration, in September 1815, the Tsar proposed to his fellow monarchs assembled in Paris the conclusion of a new and solemn agreement among themselves. They were to pledge themselves 'to manifest to the universe their firm resolution, both in the administration of their respective States and in their political relations with every other Government, to take for their sole guide the precepts of that Holy Religion, namely the precepts of Justice, Christian Charity, and Peace'. The signatories were further to agree on all occasions and in all places to lend each other aid and assistance', and were finally to implore their subjects 'to strengthen themselves every day more and more in the principles and exercise of the duties which the Divine Saviour has taught to mankind'.1

Frederick William III of Prussia, the close friend and faithful henchman of the Tsar, welcomed with enthusiasm the proposals of the 'Holy Alliance', and on September 26, 1815, appended his signature. On the same day

For the full text, see Martens, Noveau Recueil (1817–42), vol. ii, pp. 656 sqq., and Hertslet, Map of Europe by Treaty, vol. i, p. 317.

Francis of Austria also expressed his adherence. He did it without zeal or understanding, on the advice of Metternich, who regarded the Tsar's project as 'mere verbiage', but felt it desirable not to offend so powerful a ruler by any manifestation of dissent. Thus was the 'Holy Alliance' inaugurated. In due course all the other European potentates were invited to join the sacred association, except the Sultan of Turkey, who could not be expected to pledge either himself or his subjects to the observance of the principles of the Christian religion. All those who were invited intimated their willingness, with or without mental reservations, to enter the alliance, save only George III of England and the Pope. The British Government viewed the whole scheme with profound distrust. Castlereagh described it as 'a piece of sublime mysticism and nonsense'. But, though under his advice the Regent refused to pledge the British Crown, the refusal was intimated gently in a letter in which the lofty motives of the Tsar received most flattering recognition.

So far as can be discerned, the Holy Alliance was never operative, and with the death of Alexander, in 1825, it became a mere historical name. It is, however, often confused with the far more important contemporary Quadruple Alliance of 1815, to which we must now return.

IX. THE QUADRUPLE ALLIANCE, 1815

The Holy Alliance was a widely-inclusive association of benevolent despots, who were bent, it appeared, on the realization of a high moral ideal. The Quadruple Alliance was a merely mundane confederation of the four Great Powers who had overthrown Napoleon, and was directed to the severely practical purposes of, first,

permanently excluding the Napoleonic dynasty from the French throne and, secondly, effectively preventing the outbreak of French revolutionary ideas in Europe. By means of it the four Powers perpetuated and organized, for the anticipated period of peace, that close alliance which had originally been instituted for the prosecution of the war against the Corsican usurper. They created a European Tetrarchy and established it in place of the French hegemony which they had attacked and overthrown. But, since the sphere of their joint jurisdiction was wider than that of Napoleon, it is correct to say that never before had Europe been reduced so nearly to the condition of a unitary State as it was by this Treaty of November 20, 1815. The four Powers took the Continent under their protection, expressed themselves as 'uniformly disposed to adopt every salutary measure calculated to secure the tranquillity of Europe', and agreed, in order 'to consolidate the connections which at the present moment so closely unite the Four Sovereigns for the happiness of the world', to renew their meetings at fixed periods, either under the immediate auspices of the sovereigns themselves or by their respective ministers, for the purpose of consulting upon their interests or for the consideration of measures which at each of these periods shall be considered the most salutary for the repose and prosperity of nations and for the maintenance of the peace of Europe'.1

Thus was founded at Paris, on the bases laid down at Chaumont and Vienna, that Concert of Europe which for the next seven years kept the Continent under so severe a discipline. Under its auspices were summoned the Congresses of Aix-la-Chapelle, Troppau, Laibach, and Verona. During the intervals between these congresses

1 For full text, see Hertslet, Map of Europe by Treaty, vol. i, pp. 872-5, and Martens, Nouveau Recueil (1817-42), vol. ii, pp. 682 sqq.