outlet in structures and activities of a kind that distinguish each species from all others, and they are energies available in human beings for the highest types of activitiy that characterize the species. Our fine arts and our practical arts, our sciences and philosophies, can be shown to arise in considerable measure from these surplus energies made available by the internal secretions.

The subject of the secondary sexual characters, closely related to that of internal secretions, presents difficulties to teachers chiefly because we have not accustomed ourselves to thinking of the intimate interrelations within the organisms. In our own training the emphasis had been laid too much upon external adaptations in the Darwinian sense and in many cases in a teleological sense. But the simpler physiological process which we are already teaching can lead up very satisfactorily to these newer ideas. We know that chemical changes modify the action of protoplasm in a very striking way-as, for example, the increase in pulse rate resulting from a brief period of vigorous physical exercise. This familiår phenomenon is sometimes "explained" by saying that increased activity creates a demand for more oxygen in the tissues and that therefore the respiration and pulse rate are increased. When we come to think of this we see that the explanation obviously puts the cart before the horse. What really happens is that the increased activity results in the liberation into the blood of increasing amounts of carbon dioxid; and that the partial pressure of the carbon dioxid in the blood affects the nerves in the heart controlling the pulse rate and the respiration rate. In the same way our other studies have shown the effects of poisons, stimulants and narcotics as modifiers of feeling and behavior. It should not then be difficult to grasp the idea that certain specific bodies produce distinct modifications in the behavior of the various tissues and organs of the body even though these specific bodies are derived from the organism itself.

8. How we learn. The response of organisms to specific stimuli or to situations as a whole, and the processes by which the response is modified. Pavlov's experiments with the secretions of saliva and gastric juices in the dog furnish an excellent introduction to the study of conditioned reflexes, and this concept may be developed as a solid foundation for understanding how we came to substitute groups of stimuli, artificially or arbitrarily assembled, for the basic stimuli that naturally bring about a

given response.

We can learn to have the mouth water on sound of the dinner bell. We can learn to straighten up when the word "posture" is mentioned. The importance of this study lies in two directions: It gives the student an understanding of the mechanism through which he may acquire that very much desired "self control" which he is constantly exhorted to exercise without being told how; and it gives him a better understanding of what we sometimes call "human nature" which he will need in adjusting himself to others and especially in his subsequent efforts to guide others, for example, his own children, in the formation of desirable habits. It goes without saying that an understanding

of this mechanism is essential for the teacher.

9. Heredity and environment. Wherever the opportunity presents itself, students will invariably bring up the question of heredity and environment. With the basis of information concerning the various functions of the organism a study of fluctuations and modifications becomes possible. The Mendelian principles of segregation and unit character as shown in the phenomena of dominance, the idea of multiple factors, and that of the continuity of germ plasm are easily taught toward the end of the biology course even in the first year of high school.

In our inveterate disposition to preach we are often tempted to make of the study of heredity an occasion for impressing upon our students the responsibility of parenthood and to do so in a way that flatly contradicts our scientific teaching. On the one hand we teach the persistence of germinal factors that determine capacity; on the other hand we try to insinuate that the righteous life will insure superior progeny. This is, of course, sheer nonsense. What we may say is that those who have capacity for high grade living have it because of their heredity and manifest it because of their opportunities; and that they in turn will transmit such capacities to their offspring whether they have themselves manifested them or not. The most valuable implications, it seems to me, that the study of heredity carries for young people, is in the direction of opening the eyes to fundamental organic values, a cultivating, so to speak, of taste in organisms. We may perhaps teach young people to think of their future mates as the parents of their own children more critically than they might otherwise do.

Hand in hand with the study of heredity goes the inevitable question of the relative importance of heredity and environment. As usually formulated this question has, strictly speaking, no

real meaning. Two eggs in an incubator exposed to identical environment will yield respectively a Plymouth Rock and a White Leghorn. In both cases the unfolding of inherent characters depends upon a particular environment; a different environment would have inhibited the development of some capacities would have stimulated the development of others. When we come to human beings our study of biology should make clear that there are certain fundamental conditions for normal development and that departures from or additions to these essentials of the environment modify development of the total inherent capacity in a way that is peculiar to each individual. There is no environment that is the best environment for all although there are certain things which every organism, more particularly every human being, must have in its environment if it is to develop favorably.

10. Venereal diseases. When we are teaching the elements of infectious diseases, gonorrhea and syphilis with their more pronounced symptoms and consequences may be taught along with tuberculosis and diphtheria and typhoid fever, etc. After the principles of reproduction have been taught, the venereal diseases as such, that is to say in their relation to the most frequent mode of transmission, may again be introduced from the viewpoint of prevention and from the viewpoint of their more serious racial consequences.

11. Personal problems. Varying with the composition of the class and with the personal relation between pupil and teacher, a multitude of other questions will arise that have a proper place in biology instruction, although they may not be uniformly part of the biology course. Among these questions are the facts and meaning of menstruation and seminal emissions; or the problems of so-called "sex necessity" and masturbation. These questions can never be handled satisfactorily in mixed classes of high school age and probably not in classes at all by most teachers. Yet the individual student should certainly have an opportunity to have his questions answered and in many cases the biology teacher is the only one equipped to meet the situation and will, therefore, have to find opportunity outside of class.

In the teaching of science we must be confident that the truth needs no bolstering. There is need for neither exaggeration nor minimizing of statistical data or of clinical facts. The pushing of a moral with too much vehemence is likely not only to arouse hostility of pupils, but also to arouse suspicions as to

the validity of the argument. The scientific temper means not only that we make pupils consider all facts without prejudice, but that we as teachers be always ready to consider new facts and new interpretations of old facts. We ask our pupils to be open-minded and objective; if, instead of asking them, we demonstrate these attitudes day by day for a reasonable length of time, we shall be spared the need of asking them, and probably get better results. We must realize that the value of science-or knowledge is not in making us do things, but in showing us an ever better way of doing what we already wish to do, and better things to desire. Its great intellectual contribution is in making its followers hold fast to what they have, always subject to revision-in giving us the experimental outlook upon the problems of life in habituating us to accept truth as always tentative, a working hypothesis, and our beliefs as constantly growing and refining, not as final doctrines to be forced upon all who come under our domination.

CONTESTS TEACH CHILDREN SAFETY.

Reduction of automobile accidents and fatalities among school children already are beginning to be apparent as a result of the national safety contests conducted by the Highway and Highway Transport Education Committee, according to reports emanating from all sections of the country, it was said here today by officials of the committee..

"We observe a decided tendency toward carefulness," writes one school superintendent. "It is unlikely that the principles of safety could have been impressed more firmly upon the minds of our pupils in any other manner than by means of the contest conducted under your supervision." With the contests over, the next task, according to the committee, is the grading of the manuscripts and the awarding of the 472 state and territorial prizes and the national honors and prizes offered for the best essays and the best lessons prepared in the contests. Correspondence with school officials from all sections of the country indicate that a veritable deluge of essays by pupils and lessons by teachers are reaching the offices of the superintendents and principals.

"We feel keenly the responsibility that devolves upon us to see that each manuscript written receives careful consideration." say officials of the committee. We are receiving splendid cooperation from county, city and state superintendents of schools.'

As a result of the campaign conducted by the committee many inquiries are being received regarding the best means of caring for local conditions. These requests come from Tennessee, Michigan, California, and other states. It is believed the committee eventually will become a clearing house for safety ideas, disseminating them to all persons interested in the protection of children from motor mishaps.

It is said that the results of the contests can not be known before March or April. At that time a general announcement will be sent out to all schools and persons interested, and to the press.

THE BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES IN MINNESOTA
HIGH SCHOOLS.

BY A. M. HOLMQUIST,

St. Olaf College, Northfield, Minn.

What is being done in the biological sciences in the high schools of Minnesota? To determine this point, a questionnaire was directed to 165 of the 240 high schools of the state during the spring of 1921. The purpose was primarily to secure information for guidance in organizing a teachers' course in zoology. The questionnaire included detailed questions relating to zoology and general biology, and less specific questions concerning botany and physiology. A few questions concerning general science were also included, since a small amount of biology is also included in that subject. Concerning these subjects, it was desired to know the attitude of educators of the state, what the demands were, what developments, if any, were taking place, and how the subjects were being conducted. 109 of the 165 questionnaires were returned with the information desired. These came from schools of all sizes ranging from a high school enrollment of 48 to that of 3,078, the greater number coming from schools of less than 500 enrollment. In order to inform those of the state who are interested as well as others who might wish to know something about the status of the biological sciences in Minnesota, a review of the facts obtained is herewith given.

GENERAL SITUATION.

By examining Table I, it will be seen that general biology, zoology, physiology, and botany are practically the only purely biological subjects taught. One school reported a course in sanitation.

Table I.

Table I shows the high schools heard from, arranged according to enrollment and showing the subjects offered in each high school. "X" indicates the subjects given and the dashes indicate those not given. The enrollments marked with an asterisk are taken from the state high school inspector's report for 1919-20, since some neglected to report the enrollment in the questionnaire.