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founded by the revolt of Theodotus, the governor of the province, from Antiochus II., in в.c. 255, and overthrown by the Parthians about B.C. 125, after its kings had ruled over a considerable part of India; and the Persian kingdoms of Pontus and Cappadocia, which, established by the rebellion of satraps in the last days of the empire, regained their independence with the decline of the Seleucidæ, and will be heard of again in the course of Roman history.

CONDITION OF GREECE.

CHAPTER XVIII.

LAST YEARS OF LIBERTY IN GREECE.-FROM THE EXPE-
DITION OF ALEXANDER TO THE RISE OF THE ACHEAN

LEAGUE. B.C. 334 TO B.C. 280.

"Much-suffering heroes next their honours claim,
Those of less noisy, and less guilty fame.
Here his abode the martyr'd PHOCION claims,
With AGIS, not the last of Spartan names."-POPE.

CONDITION OF GREECE AT ALEXANDER'S DEPARTURE-ATHENS AND SPARTA-MOVEMENTS
OF AGIS-HIS DEFEAT AND DEATH-ESCHINES AND DEMOSTHENES-AFFAIR OF HAR-
PALUS-EXILE OF DEMOSTHENES-ALEXANDER'S EDICT FOR RESTORING THE EXILES
-EFFECT OF ALEXANDER'S DEATH-THE LAMIAN WAR-VICTORY OF ANTIPATER-
DEATHS OF HYPERIDES, DEMOSTHENES, AND DEMADES-POLYSPERCHON-PROCLAMA-
TION OF GREEK LIBERTY-DEATH OF PHOCION-CASSANDER MASTER OF ATHENS-
IN PELOPONNESUS-FORTIFICATION
OF AN-
DEMETRIUS THE
OF THEBES-SUCCESSES
OF MACEDONIA-RESTORATION
SPARTA-AFFAIRS
PACIFICATION-CASSANDER MASTER OF MACEDONIA
TIGONUS IN GREECE-GENERAL
AND GREECE-DEMETRIUS POLIORCETES AT ATHENS-HIS SECOND VISIT-SUCCESSFUL
WAR WITH CASSANDER-RECAL TO ASIA, AND RETURN TO GREECE-REPULSE FROM
ATHENS DEATH OF CASSANDER-PHILIP IV., ANTIPATER, AND

PHALEREAN-CASSANDER

OF

ALEXANDER-DEME

TRIUS POLIORCETES TAKES ATHENS-KING OF MACEDONIA-HIS WARS IN GREECE-
WITH PYRRHUS AND LYSIMACHUS HIS FLIGHT TO ASIA, IMPRISONMENT AND DEATH
-EXPULSION OF PYRRHUS BY LYSIMACHUS-ANARCHY IN MACEDONIA-ANTIGONUS
GONATAS AND HIS DYNASTY-DEATH OF LYSIMACH US-PYRRHUS IN ITALY-IRRUP-
TION OF THE GAULS-RISE OF THE ETOLIAN AND ACHEAN

LEAGUES-CONNECTION

OF GREECE WITH THE WEST-SICILIAN AND ITALIAN GREEKS AGATHOCLES-LITE-
RATURE AND ART DURING THE MACEDONIAN PERIOD-SCHOOLS OF PHILOSOPHY.

We have now to look back upon the condition of Greece during the absence of Alexander in Asia, and the period of the wars of the Diadochi. It is seldom that a free country acquiesces in the surrender of its liberty. Political rights may be snatched away by a surprise, borne down by force, or forfeited by apathy and internal dissensions; but a vigorous political life only expires, after many a hard struggle, in the crushing embrace of overwhelming strength. The Macedonian conquest had deprived Greece of the free use of her liberty; but it was only finally extinguished by the arms of Rome. When the time arrived for the catastrophe, it proved an immense gain to the conquerors, and to the whole world, that the Hellenic life had not first been absorbed into an Oriental despotism. The last efforts for liberty kept alive that "ingenium civile," which was a more precious gift even than the arts and letters which the victors received from the vanquished.

In accepting the results of Chæronea and of the fall of Thebes,

the Greeks had consoled themselves with the belief, whether real or affected, that their conqueror was their proper leader to the final triumph over Persia. How far this sentiment wrought among them, as at least a pretext for willing and even flattering consent, and how there remained a party which had not abandoned a truer view of the case, we have already seen. It is difficult to estimate the strength of that party throughout Grecce; and we can only trace its working with certainty at Athens and at Sparta, in the party divisions of the former state and the sturdy secession of the latter. The intuitive sagacity of Alexander judged rightly of the position of the two cities, when he took every opportunity to flatter Athens, but without loosening his grasp upon her, while he excepted Sparta from all share in the honours of the common enterprise.* The difference was equally marked in the conduct of the two cities themselves.

While the patriot party at Athens were retailing every piece of news that seemed unfavourable to Alexander, with more curiosity than hope, the Spartans, under the guidance of King Agis III.,† were watching their opportunity for action, and meanwhile reviving, with considerable success, the confederacy of Peloponnesian states. How little reason there was for despair, if Darius had shown the least power of resistance, is apparent from the feelings excited by the successes of the Persian fleet under Memnon (B.c. 334-333). We have seen how the change in the plans of Darius, consequent upon Memnon's death, paralyzed the fleet by the withdrawal of the Grecian mercenaries, and how, though Pharnabazus continued the operations in the Ægæan, and met Agis to concert a landing in Peloponnesus, he was recalled to Asia by the news of the battle of Issus. He left, however, ten triremes and thirty talents with Agis, who sent his brother Agesilaus to reduce Crete, and Alexander found it necessary to send a naval force to act against him (B. C. 331).

In the following spring, Agis declared open war against Antipater, the regent of Macedonia. The time seems ill-chosen, so soon after the victory of Arbela; but he was perhaps encouraged by Alexander's increasing distance from Europe, as well as by the revolt of the Macedonian governor of Thrace. Agis was joined by many of the Greek mercenaries who had been serving Darius; and he obtained the support of the Eleans, the Achæans, and the

*

See, for examples, chap. xvi. pp. 38, 47, 49, 50, 52, 58.

The Eurysthenid king, Cleomenes II., appears to have been a mere cipher throughout his long reign of sixty-one years.

B.C. 330.]

DEFEAT AND DEATH OF AGIS.

95

Arcadians, except Megalopolis, which was decidedly Macedonian. The influence of Phocion kept down the war party at Athens, and even Demosthenes would not advise the risk. The brief war which followed was confined to Peloponnesus. Agis, with an army of 20,000 foot and 2000 horse, laid siege to Megalopolis, which Antipater hastened to relieve; and Agis fell, with 5000 men, in a battle so desperate that it cost the victors 3500 killed and wounded. The synod of Greek states was again convened at Corinth, to pronounce the complete submission of Greece, and Lacedæmonian envoys followed Alexander as far as Bactra to place their city at his disposal. We are not told what answer they received. The defeat of Agis seemed to secure a complete ascendancy to the Macedonian party at Athens, who seized the opportunity for that grand attack upon Ctesiphon and Demosthenes, which recoiled so signally upon Eschines (B.c. 330).

The history of Greece is now a complete blank till the return of Alexander from India to Susa (B.C. 325). Among the satraps who had abused their power during his absence, was Harpalus, whom he had treated with distinguished favour, and made governor of Babylon. While Harpalus was engaged in squandering the royal treasure in luxury, and treating his subjects with true Oriental tyranny, he was cultivating close relations with Athens, and sending presents both to the city and to many of the leading statesmen. So, when he fled from Babylon, with 5000 soldiers and a large treasure, he steered for Cape Sunium, secure of a favourable reception. Prudence, however, forbade a step so directly hostile to Alexander; and Phocion and Demosthenes were agreed in opposing it. Nay more, when envoys came from Antipater demanding that Harpalus should be given up, it was Demosthenes who moved his arrest. He contrived, however, to escape from the prison, and fled to Crete, leaving his treasure under sequestration in the Acropolis. On comparing its value with the account given in by Harpalus, a large deficiency was discovered; and the Areopagus, after investigating the matter on the motion of Demosthenes himself, preferred a charge of peculation against several citizens, amongst whom were Demosthenes and Demades. The latter fled, but the former was found guilty by a dicastery of 1500 citizens, and sentenced to a fine of fifty talents. Having no means of payment, he was cast into prison, whence he escaped, and resided sometimes at Trozen, and sometimes at Ægina. It is said that he might often be seen upon the beach, shedding tears as he looked to the coast of Attica. Among his accusers was Hyperides, the

most violent enemy of Philip and Alexander; and there can be little doubt that his condemnation was secured by a disgraceful combination of the Macedonian party with the friends of Harpalus, whom he had refused to support, and who wanted a scapegoat for their own corruption.*

One of Alexander's last acts was to throw a firebrand into Greece. In the midst of his own final triumph in Asia, he doubtless felt secure of obedience in providing a triumph for his partizans at home. Nicanor was sent to the Olympic festival (B.C. 224) with a rescript proclaiming to the exiles throughout Greece their restoration to their cities, which Antipater was instructed to enforce. Under the guise of a universal amnesty, the edict provided in effect for the maintenance of a Macedonian party in every statefor its supremacy in many. Envoys were sent to remonstrate with Alexander; and the whole of Greece was already in excitement when the news arrived of the monarch's death.

The feeling produced is summed up in the striking image of the orator Demades, that the power of Macedonia was now like the monster Polyphemus when Ulysses had put out his single eye. The long-suppressed desire for free action found vent at Athens, in spite of the opposition of Phocion, who remained at his post, and kept his office as General, while others of his party fled to Antipater. Though Demosthenes was in exile, the youthful orator Leosthenes united with Hyperides in stirring up the people. Forty triremes, and 200 quadriremes,† were ordered to be equipped, and all citizens under forty years of age were called out. Envoys were sent round to the cities of Greece, and their efforts were seconded by Demosthenes, who was presently recalled in triumph. By the autumn, Leosthenes found himself in command of an allied army near Thermopylæ, though Boeotia, Corinth, Sparta, and Megalopolis, kept down by Macedonian garrisons, rendered no assistance. His force amounted to 13,000 foot and 600 horse, with 110 ships, which sailed along the coast.

The decision of the Thessalians for the Greek cause deprived Antipater of their splendid cavalry, and entailed upon him a great defeat in Thessaly. He threw himself into the town of

* See the elaborate argument of Mr. Grote, History of Greece, vol. xii., pp. 402

-416.

+ Vessels with four banks of oars, which began about this time to replace the smaller but more handy triremes. The difference, to compare small things with great, is something like that between the first-rates and seventy-fours of the British navy, both now becoming as obsolete as the triremes. The battle of Salamis, mentioned in the last chapter, was remarkable for the large size of the ships engaged.

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