control is regained; exaggerated and painful emotions as to the past are got rid of, and thus a healthy state of mind is restored. Both the theory and the practice of psycho-analysis are now in the melting-pot of scientific examination. Remarkable cases are reported, but evil results are also spoken of; and there is a strong prejudice in healthy human nature against digging up the disagreeable past.

Lately there has been a movement towards employing the religious instinct, scientifically combined with rational medicine under the control of the doctor, in the cure of disease. It originated from the clerical side in America and is usually called the Emmanuel Movement.' Prayer, faith, religious consolations, hope, resignation, a belief in Divine guidance and grace as well as in the efficiency of the modes of treatment adopted by the doctor, are all encouraged and stimulated by sensible and suitably instructed clergymen, who are supposed to work hand in hand with the medical attendant. It is not the old exclusive 'Faith Healing,' but a sort of compromise between the purely medical side and exclusively religious ideas of disease and its treatment. A very interesting exposition of its theories, aims and methods, by various distinguished doctors and clergymen, has lately been published.* The papers in that volume by Sir Clifford Allbutt and Mr Stephen Paget are especially worthy of attention. The account of the 'movement' given by its originators, the Rev. Edward Worcester and the Rev. Samuel McComb of the Immanuel Church, Boston, is also interesting. Their method is

'to bring into effective co-operation the physician, the psychologically trained clergyman and the trained social worker in the alleviation and arrest of certain disorders of the nervous system, which are now generally regarded as some weakness or defect of character, or more or less complete mental dissociation.'

Though the meaning of the last clause is not very clear, it is well to keep in mind the common-sense limitations which the authors lay down for themselves. No doubt there will need to be very careful and delicate adjust

* Medicine and the Church,' edited by G. Rhodes. The Christian Religion as a Healing Power.'

(Unwin, 1910.) (Unwin, 1910.)

ments as between the part to be played by the doctor and the clergyman if this scheme is to work well.

Dr Dubois of Berne, a scientific physician, relying on the result of his medical experience, agrees with Mrs Eddy as to the necessity of impressing on the minds of patients that their pains and introspective ills have no substantial basis; but he says, in his work on Psychic Treatment,* 'Leave the mists of metaphysics to philosophers, be content with curing your patients.' 'I see many young women who present a perfect picture of the various symptoms of nervousness, dyspeptic troubles, general weakness, divers pains, insomnia and phobias. A quarter of an hour's conversation is enough to recognise the abnormal mentality of one of these subjects and her exaggerated impressionability, which one can often trace to her earliest infancy.' 'It is easy to detect her lack of logic and the mental genesis of a host of auto-suggestions which rule her.'

6

He pictures such a patient falling in succession into the hands of the gynecologist, the specialist in stomach diseases, and the electrician, with the result that she grows thinner and thinner' and more nervous than ever. She becomes more and more suggestible to her pains. 'Molière would have enjoyed himself largely to-day.' He finds that his 'psycho-therapeutic' treatment restores the patient to health; but undoubtedly this treatment is not easy. It takes an immense amount of time and patience, on the part of the patient especially, but also on the part of the physician. One must change the mentality.'

'In the domain of the psychoneuroses it is the moral influence which predominates. I have certain proof in the fact that I have been able in the course of a long medical career to give up all physical and drug measures.'

Such is the conclusion of a mind-curer on rational lines. But it must be remembered that he is speaking of 'psychoneuroses,' that is, functional nervous diseases with mental symptoms not amounting to insanity, and not in their nature incurable; and that he does not refer to ordinary bodily diseases.

'The Psychic Treatment of Nervous Disorders,' by Dr Paul Dubois. Translated by S. E. Jelliffe, M.D., and W. A. White, M.D. (Funk and Wagnalls, 1909.)

It is a curious psychological fact that all the 'isms,' religious and social, all the faddists and many of the neurotics, tend to take to some form of mind-cure or quackery, the grounds of which are irrational or unproved. They all distrust real science and scientific methods. They are fascinated by the unexplainable. The Baconian inductive method is abhorrent to them, doubtless because their minds are so constituted that they cannot practise it. Had such persons ruled the world in the past, civilisation and scientific progress would have been impossible.

To sum up, most of the modes of mind-cure and the forms in which they occur may be analysed thus:

1. The savage phase, in which the medicine-man' by means of a striking costume, of dogmatic statement and of certain rites, impresses his tribe with the belief that a man suffering from disease can be cured by doing some absurd act which by no possibility can produce any effect but a mental one.

2. An elaborate religious ritual performed in a temple by priest-doctors, which had as adjuncts real means of cure, such as bathing, diet, change of scene, special climate, etc. Those means were used in ancient Egypt and Greece. They produced their effect by persuading the patients that they were to be cured.

3. The use of charms, amulets, sacred emblems, as was practised in Rome and in early Christian times.

4. Purely religious mental effects in addition to some simple physical process, such as anointing with oil, drinking special waters, adopting religious rites, music, washing, etc. This was practised by the early Christians and is carried on to the present day by means of pilgrimages to shrines, sacred wells, etc., by faith-healers,' some religionists and higher thought' believers.

5. Healings through belief in a certain definite theory of disease, such as that matter does not exist, and therefore that neither disease nor physical and mental laws of health exist, as is held by the Christian Scientists.

6. Hypnotism, by which a certain abnormal physiological condition is created in the higher levels of the brain, and thereby physical and often visible local effects are produced through the brain on diseased organs and processes, or by changing morbid desires and habits, or by strengthening will-power.

7. The combined work of the regular medical practitioner and the Christian minister, under medical control, aiding each other in their several spheres, as is carried out in the Emmanuel Movement' in Boston.

8. The mental effects of suggestion, of expectancy, of dogmatic assertion, of rational explanation tending to strengthen the reasoning faculty and will-power, of hopefulness and of cheerfulness. This method is adopted by such skilled scientists as Dubois, Münsterberg, and to some extent by all scientific physicians. It is applicable specially to functional diseases, chiefly of the nervous system. The laws of hygiene, as known to science, are at the same time impressed on the patient and applied to combat his symptoms.

9. Faith in the ordinary skilled and educated physician, he being a man who has at his disposal all the therapeutic agencies known to modern science, the patient believing firmly that such means will effect a cure in a rational and physiological way. Thus the brain and mind aid the local processes of healing.

In short, modern science claims to study and explain the occurrence of so-called 'mind-cures' in diseased and disordered conditions of body. It admits the existence of such cures, but it calls in the brain as the direct agent through which they are brought about. It is now able to point out that there are, in the brain, machinery and activities sufficient to explain them. The mind comes in by setting the brain to work. Science emphatically repudiates the mystical, miraculous, and superstitious views of such mind-cures as being unreasonable and often degrading. Such views, hitherto common, result from ignorance and lend themselves to all sorts of quackery and deceit. Science now includes mind as well as life and matter in the scope of its investigation; and by this means only will humanity derive the full benefits which a study of the effects of mind, acting through the brain, will enable us to effect in curing diseased and abnormal states.

T. S. CLOUSTON.

Art. 7.-THE PHILOSOPHY OF FRIEDRICH NIETZSCHE.

1. The Complete Works of Friedrich Nietzsche. First Complete and Authorised English Translation. Edited by Dr Oscar Levy. Eighteen vols. Edinburgh and London: Foulis, 1909-11.

2. The Gospel of Superman. The Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche. By Henri Lichtenberger. Translated from the French by J. M. Kennedy. Edinburgh and London: Foulis, 1910.

3. Die Philosophie' des Als Ob. By H. Vaihinger. Berlin Reuther und Reichard, 1911.

4. The Young Nietzsche. By Elizabeth Förster-Nietzsche. Translated by A. M. Ludovici. London: Heinemann, 1912.

A QUARTER of a century has now elapsed since Friedrich Nietzsche was carried off to the asylum from which the hand of death alone released him; and during this time his fame as a prophet has been steadily growing on the Continent. The completion of the translation of his works into English shows that the invasion of England by a new German prophet is an accomplished fact, and also that, in spite of the freer circulation of ideas in the civilised world, the insulation, if not the insularity, of British thought is still a very real thing. Whether this insulation is natural or acquired, and due to the subtle bias against novelties of thought instilled by the classicism of an educational system which, when it succeeds, represents Aristotle as still the last term of philosophic speculation and, when it fails, produces a profound distrust of general ideas as such, it is unnecessary to discuss. Nietzsche has at last crossed the Channel, and will doubtless be read more extensively and understandingly than his precursors Kant and Hegel, who have never become more than caste-marks to enable the academically trained philosophers to mystify the common herd. Nietzsche's writing, on the other hand, is forcible and direct; he can be read and even understood without the study of a lifetime, and his ideas may even have an influence on conduct. It will not do therefore to pooh-pooh the ideas he stands for as the vapourings of a megalomaniac, while the lapse of