Still, however, in common language, the name of drawings is given to all works in water-colours, whether in outline only, in black and white, or in colours; and the term paintings to those in oil.

Painting in oil is capable of the greatest degree of perfection, but is also the most difficult, and is seldom attempted but by professional artists: whereas, the use of water-colours is comparatively easier, and better adapted for common use.

The first step in the arts is to learn to draw the outlines of objects: next to express the light and shadow: and, lastly, to add the colour.

But before we proceed, it will be necessary to describe the implements and colours made use of.

Implements for Drawing.

Drawing-boards are for fixing the paper upon, so that it may not shift, and also for straining it, to prevent the colours, when laid wet upon the paper, from causing it to swell up, so as to be uneven. The simplest sort is made of a deal board framed square, with a strong piece across each end, to prevent warping. Upon this the paper may be fixed down with pins, wafers, or sealing-wax, or it may be strained with paste or glue, as follows: having wetted the paper well with a sponge, lay it upon the board, and turning up the edges about half an inch, run a little good paste or glue all round on the under side, and press the paper down upon the board with a cloth; then set it by to dry: the paper, which had expanded and blistered up much when wet, will contract in drying, while the edges, being fixed immoveably, will strain quite flat and tight, and will be much better for drawing upon than when loose.

The best kind of drawing-boards, however, are made with a frame and a moveable pannel, upon which the paper is simply put wet, and then forced into the frame, where it is confined by wedges at the back. This strains equally well without the trouble of pasting, so that you may dry it at the fire; and it also looks much neater. These drawing-boards may be bought at most colour-shops. It is necessary to mention, that all the angles of drawing-boards should be exactly square.

Parallel rulers are for drawing parallel lines readily: they are made of two pieces of ebony fastened together by brass bars, so as always to move parallel to each other. They may be bought of different kinds and prices, at the mathematical instrument makers.

Tee-squares are rulers made in the form of the letter T, which are used with the drawing-boards; the short end, called the stock, being applied to the edge of the board, so as to slide forwards and backwards; while the long part, called the blade, is used for drawing lines by. These are more convenient than parallel rulers, when a drawing-board is used, as by them you draw lines at right angles to each other at once, without using the compasses.

Dividing compasses are instruments of brass and steel, for dividing lines, and laying down measures from scales, &c.: they are generally sold in cases, containing also a steel pen for drawing lines cleaner than can be done by a common pen, which is very useful where neatness is required; and points with a black lead pencil, for putting into the compasses, when circles are to be described. These cases also contain scales of equal parts, and protractors

for laying down angles.. All these may be had at the instrument makers.

Black lead pencils are made of plumbago sawed into slips, and fitted into sticks of cedar. They are of various qualities. The best are fine, without any grit, not too soft, and that cut easily without breaking. An inferior kind is made by mixing up the dust of plumbago with gum or glue, and thus forming a composition, which is fitted into sticks in the same manner as the best: these are always gritty, and do not answer so well for most drawings; yet, being cheaper, they may be used upon many occasions. It is necessary to examine pencils before any quantity is bought, by cutting one of them, because the composition pencils, having the same outward appearance, are often sold for the best.

Indian rubber, or elastic gum, as it is also called, is a substance much like leather, which has the curious and useful property of erasing or defacing lines drawn with black lead; it is, therefore, much used for this purpose. It is brought chiefly from South America, in the form of small bottles, which are cut up into slips. It is originally the juice of a tree that grows very abundantly in Surinam, and is like milk when exuded from the tree, but soon becomes solid when exposed to the air. The natives form balls of clay, which they smear over with this milk: when this coating is almost dry, they apply another, and so on, till it is of the required thickness; they then moisten the clay with water, which does not dissolve the Indian rubber, and wash it out. These bottles are used by the natives for containing water, or other liquors. It is a production common to the East Indies also, from whence it is imported in various forms,

more convenient for use than the bottles abovementioned.

Indian Ink.-This very useful substance comes from China, where it is used for common writing, which is there performed with a brush instead of a pen. It is a solid substance, of a brownish black colour. When ground up with water upon a clean tile or earthenware plate, it may be made either lighter or darker, as required, by adding to it more or less water. The best Indian ink is always stamped with Chinese characters, breaks with a glossy fracture, and feels smooth, and not gritty, when rubbed against the teeth. The composition is not accurately known. An inferior kind is made in this country; but it may be easily distinguished by its grittiness. This is made of lamp black or ivory black, ground up with gum.

Hair pencils are made of camel's hair, put into a goose or swan's quill. To choose these, moisten them a little, and if they come to a point without splitting, they are good; if they do not, they are not fit for drawing with.

Charcoal is used for slightly sketching in the outlines of figures, in order to get the proportions, previous to making a drawing in chalk. The best charcoal for this purpose is that of the willow; it is cut into slips, and the strokes made with it may easily be rubbed out with a feather of goose's or duck's wing.

Black chalk is a fossil substance resembling slaty coal, which is cut into slips for drawing. It is generally used in an instrument called a port crayon, which is made either of steel or brass. It is much employed for drawing figures, and is the best substance for this purpose, in making drawings

It is more gritty

from plaster, or after the life. than black lead, but is of a deeper black, and has not the glossiness of the former. It is of two kinds, French and Italian; the former is soft, the latter hard.

For mellowing and softening the shadows into each other when black chalk is used,

Stumps are necessary. They are pieces of soft shamoy leather, or blue paper, rolled up quite tight, and cut to a point.

White chalk is used together with black, for laying on the lights. This is different from common chalk, being much harder. Tobacco-pipe

clay will do very well instead of it.

Red chalk is a fossil substance of a red ochrey colour, which is sometimes used for drawing, but not so much now as it formerly was, the black being preferred; however, the red being cheaper, will do very well for some purposes.

Drawing paper.-Any paper that will do for writing will do for drawing; but as the wire-marks in common writing paper are injurious, paper made without any wire-marks, called wove paper, is generally used for this purpose. It is made of

various sizes and thickness.

Middle tint paper is paper of a brownish or of a grey colour, which is used for drawing upon with black and white chalk. Being of a dark colour, the strokes of the white chalk are distinctly seen; and it saves a great deal of time in making drawings, as the tint of the paper answers for the half shadow, so that all that is necessary to be done, is to lay in the dark shadows and the lights.