derived from rado, "to scrape." The term denotes any species of "rake;" but most generally the raster bidens, or "two-pronged rake,” a heavy instrument (vid. verse 164) commonly made of iron, and employed in breaking down the clods after ploughing. It was also used like a mattock or spade for loosening up the soil. Rastrum is usually translated "a harrow," but incorrectly. See note on verse 95. 95. Vimineas...... crates, "osier hurdles." In verses 94, 95, the farmer is recommended, first, to break down the clods with the rastrum, and then to draw osier hurdles over the ground, in order to pulverize the mould still better, and to render the surface smooth. This was the usual practice. Compare Colum. ii. 18, 4: Tum glebas sarculis resolvemus, et inductâ crate coæquabimus. Two sorts of hurdles were used. In a loose friable soil the common hurdle was sufficient; but in heavy soils, where the clods were very adhesive, they employed what were called crates dentatæ ; i. e. hurdles furnished with iron teeth, which served all the purposes of the modern harrows. 96. Neque illum flava Ceres, &c., "neither does the golden Ceres look upon him without favour from the lofty Olympus." Flava Ceres, Zavon Anμýtnp, see note on verse 7. The epithet here applied to the goddess of agriculture is derived from the yellow or golden hue of the ripening corn. Compare verse 73. 97. Et qui, i. e. ET multum etiam ille juvat arva, QUI, &c., "and (much does he also improve his fields) who, with plough turned in a cross direction, again breaks through the ridges which he raises in the first ploughing of the surface." Proscisso...aquore; i. e. campo primum arato; for proscindere properly denotes the first ploughing, offringere the second, and lirare the third.-FORB. See note on verse 48. Terga; i. e. the earth that is piled up between the furrows in the first ploughing; the technical term being porca. 98. Rursus in obliquum, &c.-The allusion here is to the second ploughing, which took place in summer (see note on verse 48); noli enim putare, agrum uno eodemque tempore bis aratum fuisse.-FORB. 99. Exercet; i. e. tractat, versat. Compare Hor. Epod. ii. 3, Paterna rura bubus exercet suis. Compare also verse 220; Geo. ii. 256; and Æn. vii. 798. Frequens, used adverbially for frequenter. Imperat arvis; i. e. "lords it over the lands." Elsewhere the fields are said PARERE colono."-FORB. 100-159. THE SECOND PART. What may be advantageous to the future crop after sowing: (1) favourable weather, 100-103; (2) pulverization of the soil, 104, 105; (3) irrigation, 106-110; (4) checking the luxuriance of growing corn, 111-113; (5) draining of marshy land, 113, 117; (6) the guarding against other injuries to which, by the will of Jupiter, crops have been exposed, in order to stimulate human industry, 118-159. 100. Humida solstitia; i. e. æstatem non nimis siccam.-WAGN. Hiemes serenas; i. e. hiemem non nimis humidam-WAGN; "Summer showers and genial winters.' Pliny (xvii. 2, 2) condemns this entire precept: Ergò qui dixit, “hiemes serenas" optanñas, non pro arboribus vota fecit. Nec "per solstitia imbres" vitibus conducunt. "Hiberno" quidem "pulvere" latiores fieri messes, luxuriantis ingenii fertilitate dictum est. Alioqui vota arborum frugumque communia sunt, nives diutinas sedere. Pliny evidently misunderstood the poet's meaning, which is simply this: "Pray that the natural drought of summer may be tempered by occasional showers, and that the natural moisture of winter may be interrupted by occasional intervals of dry and serene weather." Macrobius (Sat. v. 20) quotes a very ancient verse, which sustains Virgil's precept: Hiberno pulvere, verno luto, grandia farra, Camille, metes; and so our own proverb: "A bushel of March dust is worth a king's ransom.' Virgil writes this precept for his native district, Mantua. Solstitium (from sol and sistere, Tрonal depivaí), “the summer solstice;" bruma (qu. brevima, i. e. brevissima, "the shortest day," Tрonal xeiμepival), "the winter solstice;" as expressed by pure Latin writers; but the later Roman authors use solstitium æstivum and solstitium brumale. See Ecl. vii. 47. 102. Nullo tantum se Mysia cultu, &c.-The poet, having observed that land was most productive and crops most luxuriant when blessed with humida solstitia and hiemes serena, adds, that Mysia itself was not superior in fertility to land so favoured.-WAGN., FORB. Translate, "Pray for humid summers and serene winters, ye husbandmen; with winter-dust the corn is most luxuriant, the land productive; Mysia does not pride herself so much (se jactat, etxerai) in the abundance of her crops; nor does Gargarus even admire her own harvests so much," as might the land that is favoured with such a climate. This is the best interpretation; but observe (1) that nullo is = non or haud, as in En. ii. 583, iv. 232, vi. 405; (2) that cultu is satis lætis, the cause being put for the effect; (3) that et is nec, the negation of the first clause influencing the second also, as is frequently the case in Virgil; vid. Æn. xii. 801, iv. 228, 502, 530; (4) that tantùm is to be repeated in the second clause from the first. The interpretation given by Heyne, Wunderlich, &c., is, Nullo tantum se Mysia cultu, &c.; i. e. cultu non efficitur, sed cœli temperie, ut Mysia se jactet, et Gargara ipsa suas messes mirentur. It is not so much by any peculiarity of culture, as by the genial nature of the climate; i. e. the great productiveness of Mysia is attributable, not so much to the cultivation of its soil, as to its enjoying humida solstitia and hiemes serenas. Mysia, a region of considerable extent, situated in the north of Asia Minor, and including within its limits what was once the kingdom of Priam. It was celebrated for its fertility. 103. Gargara, plur. of Gargarus, the most elevated of the range of mountains so well known under the name of Ida, and so distinguished for its springs. Compare Hom. Il. 0, 47: Ἴδην δ ̓ ἵκανεν πολυπίδακα, μητέρα θηρῶν, The lower declivity of this entire range, and of Gargarus in particular, was pre-eminently fertile; so much so that the name of this mountain passed into a proverbial expression amongst the Greeks to denote "superabundance." Consult Lex. s. v. yapyapa and yapyaipei. 104. Quid dicam, qui; i. e. quid dicam DE EO qui, &c. Such ellipsis of the antecedent is not unusual. The following instances are remarkable: Ecl. ii. 71; Æn. iv. ¿98, xi. 81, 172. But Wagner observes: "This is a species of breviloquentia, which is to be explained thus: Quid dicam qualem messem habiturus sit, (vid. ver. 103) qui, &c. Vid. En. vi. 141, 453." Jacto semine, "after the seed has been sown." Cominus, i. e. rastro, quod manu teneturWAGN. HAND., "with a rake." Forbiger interprets "immediately," i. e. ut vestigia serentis premas. Male pinguis, i. e. nimium pinguis, "too rich," "too rank."-HEYNE. Male is frequently used in this sense; compare Hor. Od. i. 7, 25, male dispar; Sat. i. 3, 31, male laxus; Sat. i. 4, 66, rauci male; Sat i. 9, 65, male salsus. But Wagner and Forbiger explain male pinguis here by non pinguis, infecundæ, as male sanus; compare Hor. Sat. i. 3, 46. Arena, used for dry soil in general. 105-110. Virgil here imitates Hom. Il. xxi. 257–262. 106. Satis fluvium, "river-water in sufficient quantity." The adverb satis is here used adjectively, as it usually is when not connected with a genitive case.-FORB. But why not translate satis" upon the sown fields," dat. plur.? Sequentes," fast flowing." Compare En. v. 193, Maleæque sequacibus undis. .. 107. Et, cùm exustus ager, &c., " And when the parched land with its dying herbage gasps-from-the-excessive-heut," (astuat.) The metaphor contained in this verse is derived from a man fatigued and exhausted, and panting from the intense heat of the sun.-FORB. 108. Ecce is here expressive of wonder and admiration at the rapidity with which the experienced husbandman brings down the water upon his fields; vid. ver. 407. Supercilium, like the Greek oopùs, is used by a metaphor for the "upper part," or, as we say, the "brow" of a mountain. Compare Hom. 11. xx. 151: Οἱ δ ̓ ἑτέρωσε κάθιζον ἐπ' ὀφρύσι Καλλικολώνης. Clivosi tramitis. Some connect these words with supercilio, "from the brow of the water-course on the sloping hill; " thus we read in Apul. Met. v., supercilium amnis; i. e. alta et saxosa ripa; and so oppùs is used by Polyb. ii. 33, 7.-FORB. But Wagner explains clivosi tramitis by rivi, qui tramitis instar per clivum ductus est; in which case undam is the governing word: "lo! from the brow-of-a-hill he entices-forth the water of a rivulet which-he-has caused-to-flow-along-the-slope." Tramitis, gen. of trames (from trans, "across," and meare, to go"), properly signifies "a cross-road," but with the poets it means any "way,' or "path," and in the present instance "a water-course," vopoppóa. 109. Illa cadens raucum, &c. Compare Hom. Il, xxi. 260: Τοῦ μέν τε προρέοντος, ὑπὸ ψηφίδες ἅπασαι Ὀχλεῦνται. 111. Quid, qui; vid. verse 104. Ne gravidis procumbat culmus aristis, "lest the stalks should lodge under the loaded ears. Compare Flin. xviii. 44, Inter vitia segetum et LUXURIA est, quum oneratæ fertilitate PROCUMBUNT. Compare Hesiod. "Εργ. 473: “Ωδέ κεν ἁδροσύνη OTάXVES VÉOLEV epaše. Culmus, "the stalk of corn;" spica, "the ear of corn;" arista, "the beard of the ear," strictly speaking. 112. Luxuriem segetum tenerá depascit in herbû. This treatment of too luxuriant corn was called depastio. Compare Plin. xviii. 45, Luxuria segetum castigatur dente pecoris in herba duntaxat ; et dépastæ quidem vel sæpius nullam in spica injuriam sentiunt; and Theophr. viii. 7: Ἐν δὲ ταῖς ἀγαθαῖς χώραις, πρὸς τὸ μὴ φυλλομανεῖν, ἐπινέμουσι και ἐπικείρουσι τὸν σῖτον. In these countries the same purpose is generally effected by passing a heavy roller once or twice over the corn-field. Tenerâ...in herbâ ; i. e. dum tenera est herba. 113. Cum primum sulcos æquant sata, scil. porcis; i. e. quando nova seges altitudine suâ æquat sulcos porcis.-WAGN. FORB. "When first the young crop equalizes the furrows;" i. e. when the young corn is just sufficiently grown to hide the inequalities occasioned by the ploughing, and the whole field appears to be of a level surface. Sulcus," the furrow" made by the plough; porca, "the ridge" between the furrows; vid. note on verse 97. Heyne considered that sulcos is here used in the sense of porcas; and thus the translation would be, "When the young corn first rises-to-a level-with the ridges. 114. Collectum humorem bibulá deducit arena. Draining was effected by the ancients in a way somewhat similar to that which is adopted at the present day in Great Britain and Ireland, viz. by cutting small drains (elices) in the fields, which conveyed the water into main drains (collicia) outside the fields. But, in the passage before us, Virgil is generally understood to recommend that the stagnant water should be drawn off INTO some sandy tract, where it would be absorbed; bibulâ arend therefore is ad locum arenosam, quo absorbatur. Voss and Holdsworth, however, consider that allusion is made to the practice, which also prevailed among the ancients, of spreading sand upon marshy ground in order to absorb the moisture. According to this view, bibula arend should be translated "by means of absorbent sand." Martyn gives to arena here the same meaning that it has in verse 105, "from the soaking soil." 115. Incertis mensibus, "during the months of unsettled weather." Compare Ovid. Art. ii. 318: Quum modo frigoribus premitur, modo solvitur æstu, Compare also Pindar. Isthm. iv. 30, Tolkiλo μves, i. e. the winter months; and Ovid. Met. i. 117, where the autumnal months are called inæquales. The expression in the text may refer to either autumn or spring; but it is probable that allusion is made to the latter season in particular, because it is chiefly during spring that rivers and watercourses overflow their banks, in consequence of the snow melting on the mountains. Vid. verse 43, and Hor. Od. i. 4, 1. 116. Exit, "overflows its banks;" see En. ii. 496. Obducto... tenet...limo, for the simple limo obducit.-HEYNE. This interpretation is not correct; the verb tenet serves to indicate that the inundation and alluvial deposit lasted for some time.-FORB. 118. Nec tamen, hæc cum sint, &c. Translate, but even when the labours of men and oxen have essayed these things in tilling the soil, still the destructive goose, and the Strymonian cranes, and succory, with its bitter fibres, occasion considerable injury; and the shade too is hurtful." Nec...nihil...officiunt; i. q. multùm officiunt. 119. Improbus. This is the common epithet of injurious and rapacious animals; thus Æn. ix. 62, lupus...improbus; x. 727, improba ora, scil. leonis; xii. 250, ales...improbus; i. e. the eagle; Geo. iii. 430, anguis...improbus. It is also applied to inanimate things, corresponding somewhat to the Homeric avaids. Thus we read in Geo. i. 146, labor ...improbus; En. ii. 356, improba ventris...rabies; xii. 687, mons improbus; Hor. Od. iii. 9, 22, improbo Iracundior Hadriá-WAGN. Anser. Not the domestic but the wild goose is here meant. It is uncommonly voracious, and tears up the herbage by the roots; its dung, too, from its caustic nature, is very injurious. Compare Pallad. i. 30, Anser locis consitis inimicus est, quia sata et morsu lædit et stercore.Voss, FORB. 120. Strymonia grues. Cranes abounded on the banks of the Strymon (hodie Strumona), a river which separates Thrace from Macedon. On the approach of winter they migrated to the plains of Greece. The epithet is here merely ornative, as is often the case with Virgil. Vid. Ecl. v. 27, 29, ix. 13, 30, x. 52, 66. Amaris intuba fibris. There are D two species of this herb, the intubum hortense (cichorium endiva, Linn.), "the endive" (vid. Geo. iv. 120), and the intubum agreste (cichorium intybus, Linn.), "the succory." The latter, which is here alluded to, was called Tipis by the Greeks, from Tipòs, "bitter," in consequence of its bitter flavour; whence the epithet amaris. It has long, fibrous roots, which spread horizontally to a considerable distance, and render it very difficult to be eradicated. Besides, it is much sought after by geese and other fowl, which, by burrowing for its roots, tear up the earth and young corn; vid. Colum. viii. 14, 2. Intuba. The orthography of this word seems to have varied much; we find intubum and intibum, neuter gender; and intubus and intybus, common gender. But Wagner, who thinks that the form intuba arose from intyba, which he also considers incorrect, has written intiba both here and in Geo. iv. 120, on the authority of the best MSS. Vid. Wagn. Orth. Virg. p. 485 sq. 121. Umbra, "the shade," scil. of trees and weeds. Pater ipse, i. e. Jupiter, who ruled the world during the Silver age, as Saturn did during the Golden. The pronoun ipse here betokens dignity and reverence. vid. Wagn. Quæst. Virg. xviii. 121-124. Compare Hesiod, "Epya, 42-52. 123. Primus; i. e. illorum, qui mundum rexerunt. Compare Ecl. iv. 1.-FORB. Movit agros; i. e. fecit, ut agri moverentur. See Geo. ii. 316. Mortalia corda, "human ingenuity." Some supposed that the heart was the seat of "understanding,' 'skill," and "invention." Compare Cic. Tusc. i. 9, 18, and Lucr. v. 1105, ingenio præstare, et corde valere. 99 66 124. Sua regna, "his subjects;" homines, quibus imperabat. 125. Ante Jovem; i. e. ante Jovis regnum; i. e. during the Golden age, when Saturn ruled. 126. Ne signare quidem, aut partiri limite campum. Compare Ovid. Met. i. 135 sq; Am. iii. 8, 42, signabat nullo limite mensor humum. Ne...quidem. Voss and Jahn read nec... c...quidem, which, in the sense of et ne quidem, would not be objectionable, if sustained by the authority of good MSS. Gerhard (ad Cic. Cat. Mai. 9, 27, and 10, 83) and Wagner consider that ne quidem and nec quidem differ so far, that the former is emphatic, and possesses the power excludendi atque opponendi; whereas the latter is not emphatic, but merely possesses the power definiendi et limitandi. Jahn, however, proves that this distinction holds good only where nec quidem is equivalent to et non quidem, but not where it is used for et NE quidem. 127. Fas, i. e. sollemne, “not even was it customary." In medium, és kowby, "for the common weal." Ipsaque tellus, "and the earth spontaneously." The pronoun ipse is often used for sponte, as AUTÒS for autoμaras. Vid. Ecl. iv. 21, 23, vii. 11; Geo. ii. 10, 251; and Qu. Virg. Wagn. xviii. Ipsaque tellus, omnia liberius, &c. Compare Hesiod, ̓́Εργα, 118: καρπὸν δ ̓ ἔφερε ζείδωρος άρουρα Αὐτομάτη πολλόν τε καὶ ἄφθονον. "The 128. Liberius, either=¿¢¤óvws, i. e. “liberally,” “ungrudgingly ;” or supply quàm nunc, more liberally than at present."-HEYNE. latter is the more correct; for liberius, nullo poscente, are to be taken in connection, the sense being, quia nemo aliquid poscebat ab agris, eò liberius omnia proferebant; whereas now the land yields nothing but what is extorted from it by constant tillage."- FORB. 129. Malum virus, "deadly venom.' Serpentibus atris, “to dire |