ture in that age, is reported to have caused Virgil to write the Georgics, hence this address to him. He died a few weeks before his friend Horace, A.U.C. 746, having survived Virgil about eleven years. Ulmisque adjungere vites. In the Italian vineyards the vines were generally trained to elms or poplars. Comp. Hor. Epist. i. 16, 3, amictâ vitibus ulmo; and Epod. ii. 10. Vites," vines," employed here to represent "fruit-trees" in general; for reference is made to the subject of Lib. ii. 3. Qua (sit) cura boum, "what be the proper treatment of oxen." We would remind the student that the verbs faciat, conveniat, and sit are in the Subjunctive mood, and not the Potential, though in general they are incorrectly translated as such. Qui cultus, "what sort of management." For the difference between the interrogatives quis and qui, vid. Quæst. Virg. xx. Habendo pecori. The proper force of the dat. of the gerundive is to denote ability or fitness; thus Cic. solvendo non erat, "he was not able to pay," and Plin. radix est vescendo (i. e. ad vescendum apta), "the root is fit for eating." Comp. also Geo. ii. 178, quæ sit rebus natura ferendis; i. e. quod agri ingenium APTUM SIT AD RES FERENDAS. The present passage therefore, qui cultus habendo sit pecori, is equivalent to qui cultus aptus sit ad habendum pecus, "what sort of management is best adapted for keeping up the stock" i. e. for maintaining and replenishing the stock, ad servandum supplendumque gregem.-WAGNER. Pecus habere, for alere; comp. Geo. iii. 159, where see note. But the clause may also be translated "what care is requisite for managing cattle." Pecori, opposed to boum, refers only to the smaller domestic animals, viz. sheep, swine, and goats. 4. Pecori; apibus. The final vowel of pecori does not suffer elision bere; since being in arsis, and separated by interpunction from the following vowel, the hiatus is not considered objectionable. Vid. Quest. Virg. x.; comp. Ecl. ii. 25, 53, iii. 5. The common reading is pecori atque apibus. Quanta experientia (sit) apibus parcis, scil. habendis, which is to be supplied from the preceding clause, what great experience is needed for managing the thrifty bees."-HEYNE. Some erroneously would translate the sentence thus: "what experience (i. e. sagacity, wisdom, ingenuity) is natural to the thrifty bees." Parcis, "frugal," "thrifty," peidouévais TapeóvTwv, in allusion to the economical and industrious habits of bees. According to Wagner and Forbiger, parcis is here=σravíais, i. e. scarce." 5. Hinc, i. e. nunc, ab hoc inde tempore, "now," "henceforth."HEYNE. But Voss and Forbiger consider it =ex his, horum partem, “in some degree," "to some extent," regarding it as the language of modesty, and comparing the Homeric Tav åμólev, Odyss. i. 10. Georg. ii. 444, iii. 308; Hor. Sat. i. 4, 6. 5-42. THE INVOCATION:-The poet entreats the favour and aid (1) of those deities who were reputed to exercise benign influences upon rural affairs, vss. 5—23; and (2) of Cæsar Octavianus, whom he addresses as one about to be enrolled amongst the gods, vss. 24-42. 5. Vos, scil. adeste mihi canenti, "be ye propitious to me," which is to be inferred from ferte pedem in ver. 11.-WAGN. O clarissima mundi lumina, "O ye most resplendent luminaries of the universe; "i. e. Sol and Luna, who are invoked first, as being the authors of the seasons and other subdivisions of the year, and exercising paramount influence upon vegetation and agriculture. Many commentators, and amongst them Heyne, maintain that the words clarissima mundi lumina refer by apposition to Liber and Ceres in verse 7, and they appeal to the ancient philosophical opinion noticed by Macrobius (Sat. i. 18), that the Sun and Moon were worshipped under the titles of Liber and Libera. But Voss shows this view to be erroneous for two reasons: (1) because Bacchus and Ceres were not supposed to represent the Sun and Moon, except in certain mysteries; and therefore it is not probable that the author of a popular treatise would, in the very outset, adopt an opinion that was directly at variance with the popular belief; and (2) because Varro (Res Rust. i. 1, 5), whom Virgil evidently had in view here, addresses, in a similar invocation, first, Jupiter and Tellus, secondly, Sol and Luna, and thirdly, Bacchus and Ceres, thus clearly distinguishing the two last from the two preceding. Connect quæ ducitis cœlo 6. Labentem annum, "the gliding year.' (i. e. per cœlum) labentem annum. Some, however, prefer joining quæ ducitis annum labentem cœlo ; compare Æn. iii. 515. This clause is not to be considered as merely explanatory of clarissima mundi lumina, but as indicating the reason why the Sun and Moon are here invoked amongst the dii agrestes: viz., as being the authors of the various subdivisions of the year. And the student will observe that to the name of each deity or class of deities the poet has added some circumstance or some epithet, illustrative of that deity's supposed influence upon rural affairs. Different deities are invoked for different departments: Ceres for Book i.; Bacchus, the Fauns, Nymphs and Silvanus, and Minerva, as inventress of the olive, for Book ii.; Neptune, Centaurs, Pan and Pales, for Book iii.; and Aristaus for Book iv.-FORB. 7. Liber et alma Ceres. Supply et vos adeste mihi, "And be ye, too, propitious, O Liber and benign Ceres, since through your bounty the earth exchanged the Chaonian acorn for the rich ear, and mingled Acheloïan cups with the newly discovered grapes." Liber is an epithet of Bacchus, who was so called because wine LIBERAT servitio curarum animum. The corresponding Greek epithet is Avaîos; see note on Geo. ii, 229; Ecl. vii. 58. Bacchus was the son of Jupiter and Semele, and was worshipped as the protector of vines and fruit-trees in general; see note on Geo. ii. 2. Ceres was the daughter of Saturn and Ops, and goddess of agriculture and rural life. Her Greek name was Anunτnp, an archaic form of гî μýтnp, i. e. mother earth. The epithet almus (from alere, "to nourish") is properly applied to those persons or things whence we obtain the means of subsistence; thus alma NUTRIX, alma PARENS, alma CERES, almus AGER, &c.; and hence it is also applied to everything that contributes in any way to the comfort or support of life, thus DIES almus, LUX alma, &c. Si, i. q. quum, quandoquidem, "since," "inasmuch as," and so infra verse 17. 8. Chaoniam...glandem, "the Chaonian (i. e. Dodonaan) acorn," poet. for "acorns" in general; as in Ecl. ix. 13, Chaoniæ columbæ, "Chaonian pigeons," for pigeons in general. The epithet is merely ornative, having reference to the celebrated wood of oak-trees, which surrounded the temple of Jupiter at Dodona, a city of Epirus, whose earliest inhabitants were the Chaones. Anthon observes, "According to the Greek legend, the primitive seat of man was in Epirus around Dodona; and here the human race lived on acorns, until an acquaintance with agriculture gave them the means of a better subsistence. From acorns and simple water they then rose to the use of grain and wine, the fabled gifts respectively of Ceres and Bacchus." Glans (from Báλavos, Æol. yáλavos, contracted yλávos=yλávs) is a generic term denoting any kind of kernel fruit, such as the date (povikoßáλavos), walnut (▲îos ßáλaros), acorn, &c., and it is in this general sense that Heyne, Voss, and Forbiger understand it in the present passage; but from the epithet Chaoniam, and the parallel passage in Val. Flacc. i. 70, et flavá QUERCUM damnavit aristá, it is evident that it is here restricted to the oak-acorn. Verse 8 refers to Ceres, and verse 9 to Liber. 9. Pocula...... Acheloïa, poet. for aquam. The Achelous, a river of Ætolia, was celebrated as having been the first that flowed forth from the earth; on which account the ancient poets, both Greek and Roman, often employ the name to denote simply "water." Comp. Ovid. Fast. v. 343, Donec eras mixtus nullis, Acheloe, racemis. Herman, with whom Forbiger coincides, thinks that by the term 'Axeλwis (the name of one of the River-Muses, and akin to xéλus and xeλwvn, i. e. testa) "fresh water" was signified, and that hence the name 'Axeλgós came to be applied to river or spring water in general. Pocula......miscuit uvis, in allusion to the custom of the ancients, who always drank their wine diluted with water, generally in the proportion of three parts of water to one of wine. 10. Præsentia, "propitious;" poσTATŃρIOL. Thus Ecl. i. 42, præsentes divos. Strictly, the adjective means "assisting personally,” as it probably does in Hor. Epist. i. 1, 69. Fauni. The Fauns were rural deities peculiar to the Italians, but often confounded with the Satyrs of the Greeks. The bodies of the Fauns, however, were supposed to approach more nearly than those of the Satyrs to the human form, being generally represented as differing from the human only in having pointed ears and the flat noses and short tails of the goat species. The Fauni were original deities; the Satyri the olden worshippers of Bacchus. 11. Ferte...pedem, scil. huc; i. e. ad me venite, mihi adeste, "approach together, both Fauns and Dryad maids." The phrase ferre pedem is sometimes saltare; as in Hor. Od. ii. 12, 17, Quam nec ferre pedem dedecuit choris.-FORB. The Dryads or Wood-Nymphs (Apvádes, from dpûs, “an oak," or "any timber tree") presided over woods and forests but the Hamadryads or Tree-Nymphs (Αμαδρυάδες, from ἅμα and δρυς) presided over individual trees, with which they were supposed to live and die. Some, however, contend that Apvades, 'Adpvádes, and 'Aμadpvádes are but different forms of the same name, denoting the same order of nymphs, viz. the Tree-Nymphs. ; 12. Munera vestra, "your behests," scil. corn, vines, herds, flocks, etc. Vestra refers to all the preceding deities, and not solely to the Fauns and Dryads. Cui cujus jussu, "at whose command." Prima... fudit...tellus, poet. for tellus primùm fudit.—WAGN. Some interpret prima tellus "the primeval earth," tellus recens creata, which is the meaning assigned by Heindorf to the same expression in Hor. Sat. i. 3, 99, Quum prorepserunt primis animalia terris; but compare En. vi. 811, primam qui legibus urbem Fundabit; i. e. qui primùm fundabit legibus urbem. Com 13. Fudit. The verb fundere is used de partu felici ac facili, and thence by the poets in the general sense of procreare.-HEYNE. pare Æn. viii. 139— Vobis Mercurius pater est, quem candida Maia This verse contains an allusion to the dispute between Neptune and whereupon Neptune struck the earth with his trident, and the horse leaped forth. Minerva then cast her spear, and the olive-tree sprang up; and this, being the symbol of peace, was adjudged to be more useful than the horse, which was emblematical of war. The city therefore was called 'Ahvai (Athens), the Greek name of Minerva being 'Ahvn. Such is the version of the fable given by Ovid (Met. vi. 70), and adopted by Servius and the majority of commentators. But as many of the ancient authorities concur in stating, that in the contest above mentioned Neptune produced, not a horse, but a spring of salt water (whence some MSS. have aquam for equo.-SERV.), La Cerda, Voss, and Jahn consider that the allusion here is to another and totally different fable, in which it is said that Neptune, without any contest with any other deity, produced the first horse out of a rock in Thessaly, which he struck with his trident. 14. Et (tu) cultor nemorum, "and thou, guardian of the groves;" i. e. "pasture lands." Compare Æn. iii. 111, mater cultrix Cybela. The reference is to Aristaus, the son of Apollo and the nymph Cyrene, and the father of Acteon, who was changed into a stag, and torn to pieces by his own hounds, as a punishment for having accidentally seen Diana bathing. Aristaus taught mankind the cultivation of olive-trees, the management of bees, and the art of making cheese; he was also worshipped as the protector of flocks and herds, and hence he is here styled cultor nemorum; i. e. pascuorum, for during summer the Italians used to feed their cattle through the woods and groves. Compare Geo. iv. 327, and following note. Cuicujus beneficio, "by whose behest," through whose protecting care;" compare Geo. ii. 5. Cea or Ceos (hod. Zea), an island of the Ægean Sea, one of the Cyclades, distant about twelve miles from Attica. Aristæus, after the death of his son Acteon, retired to this island, and is said to have taught its inhabitants how to propitiate Sirius, whose heat had scorched up all their pastures; in gratitude for which service he was worshipped by them after his death under the titles of Apollo Nomius and Jupiter Aristaus. 15. Dumeta," thickets;" the same as nemora in the preceding verse. Tondent, present tense, as the poet imagines the god still to remain in Ceos. -ŴR. 16. Ipse... Pan, "and even thou too, O Pan." The pronoun ipse has the effect of giving prominence and importance to Pan amongst the group of deities; vid. Quæst. Virg. xvi. § ii. y'. Pan was the god of shepherds, and the tutelary deity of Arcadia. He was represented with two small horns on his head, a flat nose, and the thighs, legs, feet, and tail of a goat. His form differed from that of the Satyrs only in having horns. He was the inventor of the σupy, or Pandean pipe; compare Ecl. ii. 31-33, and Ecl. viii. 24. Lycæus, a mountain in the south-west of Arcadia, and Manalus, a mountain in the south-east of the same country, were sacred to Pan, and famed for their woodland pastures. Nemus...saltusque. Nemus, from véuw, "to feed," pasture land surrounded by trees="glade." Saltus, from salio, "to leap ;" Greek, ἅλσος, from ἅλλομαι = " lawn.” 17. Si. See note on verse 7. Pan, ovium custos. Compare Ecl. ii. 33, Pan curat oves oviumque magistros. Manala, the plural of Manalus; compare Ecl. x. 55. 18. Tegeae. Pan was styled Tegeæus from Tegea, a town of Arcadia, where he was particularly worshipped. Oleæque Minerva inventrix, and thou, Minerva, "the first producer of the olive." See note on verse 13. 19. Uncique, puer, monstrator aratri, i. e. et tu, O puer, monstrator (i. e. auctor) unci aratri, "and thou, O boy, inventor of the crooked plough," alluding to Triptolemus, the son of Cělěus king of Eleusis in Attica, said to have been instructed by Ceres. Unci aratri; see note on verse 165. It is remarkable that Triptolemus, who was only a hero, is here invoked among the gods.-HEYNE. Some erroneously think that Osiris is the personage alluded to. The word monstrator is rare, but is found also in Ovid. Ib. 299; Lucan. ix. 979; Tac. Germ. 21. 20. Silvanus was an ancient rural deity of the Italians, who presided over flocks and farms (vid. Æn. viii. 601), and was worshipped especially as the guardian of boundaries. On some ancient medals and marbles he is represented carrying a young cypress-tree root and branch in his hand, and wearing a rustic crown upon his head; compare Ecl. x. 24-25. Ab radice, i. e. cum ipsâ radice evulsam, "torn up with the roots; compare verse 319, where see note. This is the interpretation of Schirach, Voss, Wagner, and Forbiger. The common interpretation makes ab radice=ab radice revulsam, "torn off from the root;" i. e. broken off at the root. Hand (Tursell. i. p. 24) adduces several examples to prove that the phrases ab stirpe, ab radice, a fundamento, were employed to denote the entire of anything from bottom to top, or from beginning to end; and he connects teneram closely with ab radice, i. e. quæ tota est tenera: "tender from the root up," i. e. "tender throughout." 21-23. Dique deaque omnes, &c. It was a principle of religion with the ancients, after the special invocation of particular deities, to conclude with a general one, lest any might, through forgetfulness, have been omitted.-ANTHON. 22. Quique......quique, "both ye who.........and ye, who;" the deities mentioned in verse 21 are here divided into two classes. There is a similar use of quique-quique in Geo. ii. 185-8, where see note, and in Æn. iv. 526. Non ullo semine, "from no seed;" i. e. suâ sponte provenientes, "that spring up spontaneously." Compare Geo. ii. 10-13. These words are opposed to satis in the next verse. Compare Ovid. Met. i. 107, in allusion to the Golden age: Ver erat æternum, placidique tepentibus auris Mulcebant Zephyri NATOS SINE SEMINE FLORES. Fruges, employed in a general sense to denote "the productions of the earth." 24-42. Having invoked all those deities who were supposed to take an interest in, or exert any influence upon, agricultural and rural affairs, the poet, consistently with the adulation fashionable in his age, calls particularly upon Cæsar Octavianus to favour his undertaking, addressing him as a god upon earth, and representing him as yet undecided in what order of deities he will have himself enrolled. In the year U.c. 724 (the year in which the Georgics were concluded), the Senate decreed that public and private libations should be offered to Augustus (vide Dio. li. 19), and from that time forward he began to be regarded as a god, particularly in the provinces, and even permitted temples to be dedicated to him in Pergamus and Nicomedia. But we find the poet, even so early as the year U.c. 713, when he wrote Ecl. i., purposing to treat him as a god, and to offer sacrifices to him (vid. Ecl. i. 6-8, 43-44). It may therefore be inferred, either (1st) that this part of the invocation was inserted subsequently to the completion of the entire poem, at a time when the emperor was actually regarded as a god by the generality of his subjects (which is the opinion of Catrou), |