;

Quique; sc.

as high as that on the ridges between the furrows. quid dicam de eo. Paludis of the pool; i. e. of the stagnant watèr in the furrows. 114. Arena. Gr. 414 and 4. A. & S. 247 and 3. Referring either to ditches leading to a sandy place, where the water is absorbed, or to drains half filled with small stones or gravel, which take up the water as it passes along.-115. Incertis mensibus; the months when the weather is most changeable; i. e. the spring and autumn here the spring. Gr. 426. A. & S. 253. · 116. Exit; i. e. from its bed or banks. Cf. A. II. 496. Et Et-limo and overspreads all things far and wide with a coating of mud. Gr. 430; 431 and 2. A. & S. 257 and N. 1. - 117. Unde-lacunae; i. e. if the water is not drawn off before the sun begins to act on it, it might rot the plants. Sudant; as the water would be drawn up by the heat of the sun. Lacunae ; i. e. the furrows, the spaces between the ridges. 118. Nec... nihil somewhat, in some degree. Gr. 585. A. & S. 277, R. 3. Quum although. Haec... sint... experti have tried these (expedients). - 119. Versando; like vertere, v. 2, with a further notion of frequency. Gr. 566. 3. A. & S. 275. III. R. 4, N. 2, last sentence. Improbus greedy, destructive. 120. Strymoniae; because cranes abounded about the river Strymon in Thrace. Intuba succory. It would be injurious both directly as a weed, and indirectly as attracting geese, which are fond of it. — 121. Umbra; i. e. of trees and useless plants. Pater; Jupiter, who was king during the silver age, in which toil began, as Saturn had been in the golden. See on E. IV. 5 and 18 foll. -122. Haud. Gr. 584. 3. A. & S. 191, R. 3. Primus; sc. illorum, qui mundum rexerunt. —123. Movit—fecit moveri, arari: as a man is said to do the thing that he causes to be done. Mortalia corda the intellects of men. The heart was frequently spoken of as the seat of thought and emotion. Acuens; as we speak of sharpening the intellect. 124. Passus; sc. est. Sua regna; i. e. mankind over whom he ruled. -125. Ante Jovem; i. e. ante Jovis regnum; i. e. in the golden age. 126. Ne... quidem. Gr. 602. III. 2. A. & S. 191, R. 3 (a). Signare; sc. limite. Gr. 549 and 1. A. & S. 269 and R. 2.-127. In quaerebant - they made acquisitions for the use of all; i. e. what they acquired they put into a common stock. Ipsa. See on E. IV. 21; 23. 128. Liberius; i. e. than now. It seems to include both generosity and freedom from external constraint. Nullo poscente; i. e. nullo cogente, is the cause of the liberius. Cf. E. IV. 18. —129. Virus. Gr. 47. II. A. & S. 51. Atris deadly. It is a common epithet of serpents, and sometimes it is not easy to say whether it has its primitive sense of "black," or its derivative meaning of "deadly," though it may include both. Cf. E. IV. 24. 130. Lupos. Gr. 375. A. & S. 239. Wolves are used here for

131.

beasts of prey in general. Moveri to swell, to be agitated. Mella — foliis; i. e. so that men could no longer obtain it from that source. See on E. IV. 30. Ignemque removit; i. e. hid it in the veins of the flint, so that ingenuity was required to force it out. 132. Passim; with currentia. Rivis. Gr. 414 and 3. A. & S. 247. 2.-133. Usus need, necessity. It is virtually personified; whence meditando, which is by reflection, study. -134. Et. We might have expected ut for et here, and et for ut (which is given by some MSS.) in the next line: Virgil, however, has chosen to vary the expression, coupling a particular fact with a general, and then subjoining a second particular, as a co-ordinate clause with the two. Sulcis, i. e. by ploughing. Gr. 414 and 4. A. & S. 247. 3. Frumenti... herbam. See on E. V. 26. — 135. Venus. Gr. 425. 2. 2).

A. & S. 251. Abstrusum that lay concealed (in them); lit.

thrust away (by Jupiter). Cf. A. VI. 6. Excuderet. Cf. A. I. 174. -136. Navigation then began, canoes being made by hollowing out trees. Cf. Ov. M. I. 94, 95 and notes. Sensere felt the weight of. 137. Navita tum. The further progress of navigation. Stellis fecit numbered the stars and gave them their names; į. e. they divided them into constellations. Facere nomen alicui is a phrase to which numeros is here added by a kind of zeugma. Cf. Psalms, cxlvii. 4. 138. Pleiadas; seven stars in the neck of Taurus, called also Vergiliae, “quia vere oriantur." Cf. Hor. C. IV. 14. 21. They thus marked the beginning of the sailing season. The name is derived from λéew, to sail. The word is here a tetrasyllable. · Gr. 363. A. & S. 204. For the lengthening of the final syllable, see Gr. 669. V. A. & S. 309. 2 (1). -Hyadas. See on Ov. M. III. 595. The name is derived from ve, to rain. — Lycaonis. Gr. 397 (1). A. & S. 211, R. 7 (1). Arcton. See on Ov. M. II. 129, 171. Callisto, there mentioned, was a daughter of Lycaon, king of Arcadia. -139. Captare... fallere. Gr. 549. A. & S. 269. - Fallere; sc. aves, implied in the preceding feras. — 140. Inventum; sc. est. - Saltus: forest-pastures; i. e. the glades or open spaces in forests, where cattle pastured and wild beasts wandered. They were hedged round in hunting by nets and watchers, to prevent the animals from breaking out. 141. Fishing was also invented. Funda with the casting-net. It was pear-shaped or conical, and was loaded with lead to make it sink. It was thrown forcibly into the water; hence the verb verberat lashes. The English phrase, "whip the stream," is similar. - 142. Alta petens seeking the deep parts; i. e. of the river. Pelago. Gr. 422. I. 2); 47, II. A. & S. 254, R. 3; 51. Lina drag-net, seine.

143. Ferri rigor = ferrum rigidum; sc. venit (= provenit, inventus est), from v. 145; alluding to the hardening of iron for the manu

148. Glandes. See on v. 8. See on Chaonias, E. IX. 13. Silvae is the genitive limiting

facturing of tools. The inversion of syntax, whereby the adjective idea is expressed by a noun of kindred meaning, is very common in all languages, and is frequently used by the poets with great effect; as, "the might of Gabriel" (Milton); i. e. the mighty Gabriel. Atque and particularly; giving a single instance of the implements that were then invented. This is a frequent practice with our poet. Serrae. The invention of the saw was attributed by some to Daedalus, by others to Perdix, his nephew. See on Ov. M. VIII. Introd. —— 144. Primi; sc. homines. —146. Improbus exacting, excessive. Some critics make it — persevering. See on Hor. C. III. 24. 62. Egestas want; especially of food. This leads the poet back to his subject. -147. Prima Ceres. The connection is as follows: Before the time of Jupiter there was no tillage (v. 125); but under his reign various arts were invented, and especially that of agriculture, by Ceres. See on v. 7. Sacrae is explained by Dodona. 149. Deficerent began to fail. glandes and arbuta; though some make it the subject of deficerent. Dodona, famous for its oak groves, is used poetically for the oaks themselves. 150. Et even; to be construed with frumentis. Labor injury, trouble, plagues. As examples of labor used of the sufferings of things inanimate, see v. 79, and II. 343, 372. Additus (sc. est); i. e. by Jupiter. Mala baleful, destructive. Cf. v. 129. — 151. Esset. Gr. 291; 492. A. & S. 181; 262. Robigo = blight, mildew. To avert it the Romans worshipped a deity named Robigus, or Robigo, whom they propitiated by a festival called Robigalia. Segnis unfruitful, worthless. 152. Subit comes up (in its stead). Silva. See on v. 76. It is explained by the two following nouns. 154. Infelix... avenae. See on E. V. 37. 155. Quod nisi. See on E. IX. 14. Assiduis assidue. Gr. 443. A. & S. 205, R. 15 (a). Herbam. See on v. 69. - 157. Umbram; i. e. the trees and foliage that make the shade. Votis. Vows were paid to Jupiter Pluvius. 158. Acervum. Cf. v. 185. 159. Concussa... quercu by shaking the oak; i. e. for acorns. -160. Dicendum; sc. est mihi. Et etiam. Arma implements, utensils, tools. Cf. A. 177. 161. Quis sine. Gr. 187. 1; 602. II. 1. A. & S. 136, R. 2; 279. 10 (a) and (f). Nec potuere have never been able. For the perfect, see on v. 49. -162. Inflexi is explained by vv. 169, 170. — Primum is often used in the beginning of an enumeration without a following deinde or tum, the office of which, however, is often performed by vero, etiam, autem, etc. Grave robur the ponderous and strong; lit. the ponderous strength robur aratri for robustum aratrum, like ferri rigor, v. 143, and aeternaque ferri Robora, A. VII. 609. -163. Tarda 163. Tarda = tarde ;

qualifying volventia.

See on assiduis, v. 155. Eleusinae matris; i. e. of Demeter or Ceres, who was chiefly worshipped at Eleusis in Attica. She is called mater, probably in allusion to her name, Demeter, i. e. Mother Earth. 164. Tribula, traheae; two kinds of threshing-sledge; the former of which consisted of a thick wooden board, which was armed underneath with pieces of iron or sharp flints, and drawn over the corn by a yoke of oxen, either the driver or a heavy weight being placed upon it, for the purpose of separating the grain and cutting the straw; the latter, a kind of drag, sometimes used, was probably either entirely of stone or made of the trunk of a tree. Iniquo immoderate, very great. Pondere. Gr. 428. A. & S. 211, R. 6. Rastri. See on v. 94. — 165. Virgea... supellex seems to include baskets, colanders, &c., as well as the hurdles and the fan. Celei; the father of Triptolemus and Demophon, and the first priest of Ceres at Eleusis. She instructed him in agriculture and in the making of wicker-work implements. 166. Crates. See on v. 94. Vannus the winnowing-fan. This was a broad basket, into which the corn mixed with chaff was received after threshing, and was then thrown in the direction of the wind. It is called mystica, because at the celebration of the Eleusinian mysteries it was carried in the processions in honor of Iacchus, the son of Demeter and Zeus, sometimes confounded with Bacchus (as in E. VII. 61), and sometimes distinguished from him. Bacchus was the son of Zeus and Semele. Ceres, Celeus, and Iacchus are here introduced to give a religious dignity to what might otherwise seem trivial. 167. Multo. Gr. 418 and 1. A. & S. 256, R. 16 (3). Ante; i. e. before they are needed. Memor provisà carefully (mindfully) provided. Provisa repones = providebis et repones. Gr. 579. A. & S. 274. 3 (). -168. Digna deserved, merited. Si manet; for si vis, ut te maneat. Divini ruris; either as the abode of the rural deities, or, at least, as pleasing to them. — 169. Continuo in silvis in the very woods. Continuo is explained by in silvis. The words can only mean that the young elm while yet in the woods is bent and made to grow in the required shape, whatever may be thought of the possibility of the thing, which Keightley denies. - 170. Burim the plough-beam. Gr. 85. III. and 2. A. & S. 79. 2. The buris was a piece of strong wood, naturally or artificially curved, to one end of which was affixed the pole, to the other the dentale, and into it was mortised the stiva. It therefore formed the body of the plough. Curvi... aratri. As the buris gave the characteristic bend to the plough, it is here called by the plough's name, aratri. —171. Huic; sc. buri. — Ab stirpe from the lower part; i. e. of the temo. Connect with protentus. Temo the pole. Sc. aptatur, It was part of the plough, as well as of the cart or car

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riage. The yoke was fastened to the end of it, and by means of it the oxen drew. Sometimes the temo was of the same piece of timber with the buris and share-beam (dentale), though not in the kind of plough here described. 172. Aures mould-boards. These rose on each side of the share (vomer), bending outwardly in such a manner as to throw on either hand the soil which had been previously

1. dentalia; 2. buris; 3. temo; 4. stiva; 5. manicula; 6. vomer ; 7. jugum; a. funiculus; b. clavus; c. collare; d. lora subjugia.

Fig. II.

The common ploughshare.

Fig. III.
Fig. IV.

-The dentalia alone.

A plough with mould-boards, aratrum auritum ; 7, 7. aures.

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loosened and raised by the share, and were adjusted to the sharebeam which was made double (duplici dorso) for the purpose of receiving them. Duplici... dorso. Gr. 428. A. & S. 211, R. 6. Dentalia the share-beam; a piece of wood fixed horizontally at the lower end of the buris, and to which the share was fitted. In some cases it was itself shod with iron. It is not certain whether it was one solid piece of timber, with a space to admit the end of the buris, or two pieces fastened on each side of it and running to a point. The plural dentalia is used by Virgil in speaking of one plough, but