Introduction

USTRIA, prior to the World War of 1914-18, was one of the larger powers of Europe with tradition continuous from its establishment as "Ostmark" (Eastern March or outpost) in 976 and prestige still enhanced by the reflected glory of the days of the Holy Roman Empire, the Congress of Vienna, and the era of Metternich. After the War and the Treaty of St. Germain, Austria emerged not a naturally grown State on a national and territorial basis developed historically, but a dilapidated remnant stripped of vital areas by neighboring powers and succession States, and bleeding from innumerable wounds.

Yet in the hard times of the first months and years following the War when there was neither food nor fuel, work nor value, no bloody revolution raged through the country. Instead an almost peaceful, gentle "Umsturz" or upheaval occurred in which the people, through freely chosen representatives of parliament, replaced the monarch. Thus Austria became a democratic republic in which according to the first Constitution-one of the freest in Europe all right originated in the people. The change, however, was moderate in character and radical politicians still jokingly called the State "The Imperial-Royal Republic."

In contrast to imperial Austria with an area of 115,903 square miles and a population of 28,571,934, the new Austria-comprising 8 provinces and the city of Vienna-had an area of 32,369 square miles and a population, according to the census of 1934, of 6,760,233, of which as to religion 90.57 percent were Roman Catholic; 4.38 percent Protestant; and 2.83 percent, Jewish. Linguistically, except for a small number of Slovenes, Croats, and Magyars, the entire population was German.

On November 12, 1918, when Austria was proclaimed a Republic, political leadership was in the hands of the Social Democrats, a liberal party including the vast majority of the labor class. The party soon lost control in the provinces but was able to hold ground until the fall of 1920 by forming in March 1919 a coalition Government with the Christian Socialists, a conservative party representing the interests of the Church and the middle classes. After the election of October 17, 1920, when the reins of national government fell to the Christian Socialists, the Social Democrats still controlled Vienna and a number of other industrial centers. The third political party was that of the center-the German Nationalists.

That change in the form of government necessitated corresponding changes in the educational system of the country was acknowledged

in the main by the three political parties. The Social Democrats as the most liberal were the natural leaders, and since, they were in office at a time when the country was especially receptive to reform they succeeded in enacting a number of measures of fundamental significance (p. 7).

Among the treasures and hopes still left to Austria were its children, and to make the children-all children-of the new democratic nation able and well-fitted for the hard struggle they would have to face in the future was the underlying principle and aim of the educational changes inaugurated in 1919 by the coalition Government.

In their educational policy the Social Democrats and Christian Socialists forming this Government were far-sighted and endeavored to reshape education on democratic nonpartisan principles. Democracy, the basic principle of the Constitution, therefore, was to be also the basis of the system of education. Among the leading principles of democracy in every branch of activity are liberty and its counterpart responsibility. Dependence on authority of the monarchical period, therefore, had to be replaced in the Republic by responsibility and the process of change given particular regard in an educational reform. Thus in school administration from the Ministry of Education down to the provincial, district, and local school authorities, teachers became executive and administrative officers.

Since the fate of the Austrian educational reform so bravely launched was connected closely with the decline of the democratic Republic it is necessary to have some idea of the political developments that form the background and at least a partial explanation of the change.

The actual turning point in Austria's internal politics and the beginning of the decline was marked by an unorganized revolt in Vienna in the middle of July 1927, resulting from the acquittal of the Fascist murderers of two workmen.

Beginning with the tragedy of July 1927, the influence and politics of the Fascist Heimwehr (private home defense militia) used and favored by the Christian-Socialist Chancellor Ignaz Seipel to counterbalance the influence of the Social Democrats led from one political crisis to another until Austria, after the elimination of Parliament on March 4, 1933, became an authoritarian State with Engelbert Dollfuss as Chancellor. The relations between the Social-Democrat party and masses and the Government continued to grow more strained until the tension finally broke in the civil war of February 1934.

During these years the ever growing National-Socialist (Nazi) party-feared by Christian Socialists and Social Democrats alike— watched triumphantly as the proletarian masses and the Social-Democratic Schutzbund (private defense association) on the one side and the Fascist Heimwehr on the other machine-gunned each other, and as the national artillery directed its fire against the large and beautiful apart

ment houses erected for the working people by the Social-Democratic administration of the Community of Vienna.

The Social Democrats and the Christian Socialists both made mistakes, otherwise they would have come to an armistice and mutual understanding. Pitted against each other by the radical Fascist Heimwehr they did not see the greater danger becoming more and more imminent the Nazis. Disregarding well-meant advice in the first days of February 1934, immediately before the clash, Chancellor Dollfuss refused to admit two members of the Social-Democratic party into his Government and so restore democracy and legal order. By crushing the Social Democrats the authoritarian State was established-but without taking into account the growing power of the National Socialists.

The events of the following 4 years became a pattern for more than one of the small nations later subjugated by the Nazis. After Dollfuss paid with his life, his successor tried in vain to save the country from its final fate. It was too late. Austria had been maneuvered too far into the maelstrom of the Nazi flood. The last feeble but desperate attempts of a sinking ship to keep afloat-a plebiscite and the reconciliation of the working class-failed. March 13, 1938, was only the logical consequence of February 1934, which in turn can be traced back to July 1927.

Meanwhile the principles of education, democratic-almost radical-in the first stages of the reform, became increasingly conservative. The first step in this direction was represented by the curricula of 1927, in which, however, the main principles of the reform, particularly those affecting the elementary school, were preserved. The second and more drastic step was taken in 1934, when in general policy and school politics "the clock was put back to the days before 1848," and the secondary school reverted in form except for the schools for girls to that of the period prior to the Marchet reform of 1908.

Thus the period 1918-38 comprises three phases of educational development in Austria: 1918-27, democratic school reform; 1927-34, cautious but definite tendency toward conservatism; and 1934-38, educational reaction.

The Democratic School Reform, 1918-27

Education prior to 1918

The educational system inherited by the Austrian Republic from the Monarchy had a dual character. On the one hand, after 4 or 5 years of elementary schooling there was the road of secondary school plus university or other educational institution of corresponding rank leading to the learned professions, higher posts in finance, industry, commerce, and the civil service; on the other, after 5 years of ele

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mentary schooling, the road of 3 or 4 years of higher elementary or burgher school leading to the "nonlearned professions" in trade, commerce, and industry, or to posts of inferior rank in State administration. The former was open to all, but frequented mostly by children of the upper social classes; the latter was attended by children of the lower and lower middle classes. The choice of school career had to be made on leaving the lower elementary school for there was no articulation between the schools of the two diverging roads and little between the various types of secondary schools leading to higher education.

The decision of the school career of a child was not always a matter of wealth. Tradition, social standing of the parents, and local opportunities for higher study played an important part. Further, the decision as to a boy's career was affected frequently also by considerations connected with compulsory military service. The pre-war form of this service required every man to devote 3 years between the ages of 21 to 24 to service in the army without attainment, ordinarily, of the rank of officer. Graduation from a secondary school or from a higher vocational school, or success in a not too difficult examination in place of the regular leaving examination of these schools qualified for 1 year of voluntary military service with the prospect of the rank of officer. The year of voluntary military service could be taken on attainment of 18 years of age or after the completion of studies. Elementary education. The first elementary-school law in Austria was issued December 6, 1774, by Empress Maria Theresa. Under it school attendance was compulsory from the 6th to the 12th year of age. Trivial schools giving instruction in religion and the three R's were to be established in each community; higher elementary schools (Hauptschulen) in the larger cities; and normal or model schools (Normalschulen) in the capital city of each province, where they were to serve also as places for the education and examination of teachers. The schools were all under the general supervision of the State until 1806, when they were placed under that of the ecclesiastical authorities. State supervision was resumed by a statute of May 14, 1869—the third elementary-school law-which placed this responsibility on local, district, and provincial special school councilors. The purpose of the elementary school according to this law "is to give children a moralreligious education, develop their mental faculties, equip them with knowledge and skill necessary for life, and provide the basis for developing good and fit human beings and members of society."

A supplementary law of May 2, 1883, provided for a 3-year burgher school (Bürgerschule) based on completion of the first 5 years of the elementary school. Graduation from the burgher school qualified for admission to schools for the education of elementary-school teachers (p. 32) and to higher vocational schools not based on secondary-school

attendance. To meet the needs of the population of rural and mountainous districts, school attendance in these areas was reduced to 6 years beginning at 6 years of age.

Statistics show that on leaving the lower elementary school only 7 percent of the boys entered a secondary school, while 93 percent continued in the higher or burgher school. Further, of those who completed the burgher school only a small percentage entered the 2-year lower or 4-year higher special schools for commerce, agriculture, handicraft, or technical (trade) schools.

Secondary education. The secondary school in Austria is of venerable age, but its development as a medieval institution under the direction of Monastic orders is not within the province of this bulletin. After the expulsion of the Jesuits in 1773, the gymnasia were administered more and more by the State. They were 6-year schools with an attached 2-year obligatory course in philosophy (philosophische Obligatcurs). Already other types of secondary schools foreshadowing later rich developments were beginning to appear. Thus the term "real or modern school" (Realschule) was used in 1769, and the first commercial school established in 1770.

The Austrian secondary school of our period was born in 1849, when through the Plan of organization for the Austrian gymnasia (Organisationsentwurf für die Oesterreichischen Gymnasien)-its Magna Charta-the gymnasium became an 8-year school comprising a 4-year lower gymnasium (Untergymnasium) and a 4-year upper gymnasium (Obergymnasium). The real school which prior to this was a 2-year school preparing for direct entry to industry became a 6-year school. In 1867 it was given a 7-year curriculum of more humanistic character.

The real gymnasium (Realgymnasium) with a modern language instead of Greek and some descriptive geometry in the fifth and sixth years, and the reform real gymnasium (Reform Realgymnasium) with a modern language from the first year and Latin from the fifth year were established through a school reform of 1908.

Private secondary schools for girls (literally "secondary schools for daughters"-Höhere Töchterschulen) arose in the 1890's. Six-year lyceums (Lyzeen) for girls were established by a statute of December 11, 1900. Graduation from the 6-year lyceum qualified for admission to the university only as an auditor. In 1910 the lyceum was reorganized to comprise a 4-year lower section corresponding practically to the first 4 years of the real school and a 4-year upper section quite similar to a reform real gymnasium.

Success in the final or maturity examination (Reifeprüfung) with which the secondary school course closed was marked by a certificate of maturity (Reifezeugnis). This certificate was the regular requirement for admission to a university in Austria.