of the Americans to this act was on the constitutional ground, that taxation can only co-exist with representation; and, that since they had no voice in the legislature of the parent country, they could not justly be amenable to the obligation of contributing to its income. The resources of England having been crippled in the recent war with European powers, and the Americans having obtained the alliance of France, Spain, and Holland, the slight prospect that remained of an early termination of hostilities with the revolted provinces, left no safe alternative but a recognition of their independence. This was accordingly conceded as the leading article of a treaty of peace between Great Britain, France, and the United States, in 1783. In the following year the war with Holland was likewise concluded, on less favourable terms to the Dutch than their allies had secured. The repeal of several penal statutes against the Catholics, in 1778, elicited some extravagant exhibitions of intolerant party zeal, the great bane of social renovation. The Gordon riots of 1780 stand foremost in these lamentable fruits of bigotry and exclusiveness. To counterbalance the numerous disastrous reverses of the American war, the naval forces of England achieved a series of victories that went far to justify her proud traditional honour as mistress of the seas. Rodney vanquished the Spanish fleet off Cape St. Vincent, in 1780, and the French in the West Indies two years later. In the minor engagements in the East our maritime forces asserted their accustomed superiority. General Elliot's defence of Gibraltar against the overwhelming armaments of Spain and France, deserves to be mentioned among the later events of the war. The long trial of Warren Hastings for alleged misconduct in his command in India, and the discussion of means for obviating the threatened derangement of public business by the king's temporary aberration of

intellect occupied public attention, till the absorbing events of the French Revolution threw all other topics into the shade. While the excesses and dangerous tendencies of domocratic ascendancy inspired an almost universal condemnation of the new republican government, public opinion at home was excited and drawn into more enlarged disquisition of political grievances, and associations were formed for the furtherance of reforms in the constitution. The declaration and acts of the French Convention, evincing a disposition to aid in the subversion of the neighbouring governments, and to set up republican institutions in their place, together with the judicial murder of Louis XVI. in 1793, impelled the the British government to declare war against the French and their allies. In the earlier operations of the war Britain sustained some humbling checks by land, but more than vindicated her naval superiority. Lord Howe defeated a French fleet off Ushant, in 1794; Sir John Jervis vanquished a Spanish squadron off Cape St. Vincent, and Lord Duncan beat and captured the Dutch fleet off Camperdown, in 1797. To crown this series of triumphs, after having swept the sea of hostile squadrons, Nelson almost annihilated the French navy, at the memorable battle of the Nile, in 1798. In the same year an extensive rebellion broke out in Ireland, which was not repressed without much bloodshed. The disorders and defective administration of that country were in a great measure removed by the legislative union, which dates from January 1, 1800. The great military successes of Buonaparte terrified several European powers into a withdrawal from the confederacy into which they had entered with Britain, which, after ten years' war almost single-handed against most of the powers of Europe, was glad of the resting-time afforded by the peace of Amiens, in 1802. It soon became apparent that Napoleon, now become Emperor

of France, had no serious design of observing the stipulations of the recent treaty, and, accordingly, war was vigorously recommenced in 1803. The political history of Britain, till the final overthrow of Buonaparte, and the emancipation of the many prostrate nations that had succumbed to his military genius, is chiefly that of a warfare which exhausted our resources and engaged all the energies of Europe to an unprecedented extent. Most of the powers of Europe, in the early part of the contest, were arrayed against England; but she rose superior to all disadvantages, was the only curb to the criminal ambition of that modern Alexander, whose thirst for conquest and dominion appeared insatiable, and whose fiat was at one time law from the Atlantic to the plains of Russia, from the shores of the Mediterranean to the Arctic Ocean. But Napoleon, though with a martial and enthusiastic nation completely subservient to his will, was thwarted on all sides by the operations of the English; and their successes encouraged Spain, Portugal, Italy, and the northern powers, to throw off the yoke of a worse despotism than had been known under the worst times of native misrule. The best blood and treasure of Britain were lavished with no niggard hand in the cause of European freedom, and her own shores were always secure from hostile aggression. The decisive victory of Trafalgar, which cost the life of the great Nelson, crushed every hope of rivalry on the watery element, and left Britain the undisputed empire of the sea.

Similar naval vic

tories of scarcely less moment signalized this war; and on land the Duke of Wellington, and his brave coadjutors of various nations, tested the supposed invincibility of Buonaparte. In the Peninsular our military proved themselves equal to the best armies of Europe; and the proud victors of Austerlitz, Jena, Lodi, Friedland, and Wagram, were vanquished by our troops at Vimiera,

Corunna, Talavera, Busaco, Barossa Albuera, Ciudad Rodrigo, Badajoz, Salamanca, Vittoria, and St. Sebastian. So well timed and simultaneous were the operations and successes of the allies, that just as the British had cleared Spain of her invaders, and had followed them across their frontier, the Russians, Austrians, and Prussians had brought their long-dreaded enemies to a stand in Paris itself. Napoleon was compelled to abdicate, France stripped of all her conquests made since the establishment of the republic, and the legitimate sovereign welcomed to the throne of his ancestors (28th of April, 1814). But the peace of Europe was of short duration. Napoleon escaped from Elba, the place of his seclusion, in February 1815, and delusive visions of glory and aggrandisement impelled the French to an instant and uncompromising transfer of their allegiance to their idolized general and emperor. Europe was again convulsed, but only for a brief space, and Napoleon's hopes were for ever crushed, by his defeat at the great Battle of Waterloo, on June 18, 1815. This last of the great engagements in modern European warfare was gained by the British troops, partially assisted by the Prussians, under the command of the Duke of Wellington. Napoleon, seeing no hope of escape, as Paris was immediately occupied by the allies, surrendered to the captain of the Bellerophon, a British manof-war, was brought to Plymouth, and thence consigned to perpetual banishment in St. Helena, where he died in 1821.

During the last ten years of George's reign, owing to the re-appearance of his mental malady, the royal functions were discharged by his son, under the title of Prince Regent. This period was characterised by much popular excitement on political grievances; the advocacy of parliamentary reform, and the arbitrary efforts of the Castlereagh administration, to repress the

slightest indication of popular discontent. The people were almost goaded into rebellion; riots occurred in some places; and one meeting in Manchester (in August, 1819), of an orderly and peaceable character, convened to petition parliament in a constitutional manner, was dispersed by cavalry with considerable bloodshed. The matters for which these petitioners agitated have been long since conceded, and the inexpediency and uselessness of arbitrary measures recognised. George III. died in January, 1820, after a reign of nearly 60 years.

Among the leading statesmen of this reign, were— Lord Chatham, Lord North, Lord Thurlow, Lord Mansfield, Pitt, Fox, Burke, Dundas, Percival, Grenville, Canning, Eldon, Castlereagh, Liverpool, Holland, &c.