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of Trade' are particularly interesting; and the statement, that only from one-fifth to one-sixth of the labour engaged in production in this country is devoted to the supply of goods for foreign trade,' will come as a surprise to many. The effects of inventions in the textile and iron trades and in regard to modes of transport, as given in the next chapter, are also very striking, and have a particular bearing upon the encouragement of inventors advocated in an earlier section of this article.

In

Closely allied to commercial education is the choice of a vocation by every boy or girl, when special training becomes necessary. Experience has shown that inclination is not a safe guide in this matter; and scientific tests have been devised to gauge the suitability or otherwise of candidates for particular callings. This method, which originated in Germany, has long been practised in the United States for choosing street-car drivers and telephone girls; and the system is spreading to all vocations which lend themselves to such treatment. this connexion Mr Dearle's book, mentioned at the head of this article, will be found useful. The bulk of it is devoted to the consideration of the existing conditions under which boys are educated and taught a trade in the London area. In the last chapter, entitled 'The Needs of the Future,' the author advocates the establishment in each trade or industry of a definite standard of obligation as regards teaching, and as regards the conditions under which it is given, whatever be the actual method adopted.' The author describes the many different methods employed in teaching the various trades, and points out the advantages which would accrue from uniformity, adding many practical suggestions in regard to the subject.

Government support for trade.-Chambers of Commerce and other trade organisations have recently been unanimous in urging the need for a Ministry of Commerce, presided over by a practical business man whose duty it will be to foster and assist British trade both at home and abroad. This new government department will either take over and reorganise the consular service or send out separate agents of its own. Whether a separate service is instituted or not, our trade representatives abroad must be fluent in the language of the

countries to which they are sent, while combining a practical knowledge of business with some scientific and engineering training. The latter qualifications are necessary owing to the many engineering schemes in the form of railways, power supplies, irrigation enterprises, etc., which form an important branch of foreign trade. Reports from men on the spot as to the prospects of schemes of this nature will enable our engineering and financial houses to make an early appearance in the field. In some cases it may even be necessary to send out a special commissioner in the form of an expert in the particular type of scheme in prospect. British schemes should also be strongly backed up by our ambassadors and legations. This feature was at one time very prominent in China in connexion with the railway schemes of other countries, whereas British firms were generally left to shift for themselves.

Financial assistance may also be necessary in the case of large schemes; and this will be more easily obtainable from private sources for enterprises which have been favourably reported upon by a government department, even if government funds cannot be provided for such purposes. Not only do engineering schemes pay the promoters, but they also enhance the prestige and influence of the nation whose engineers and financiers have carried out the work, thus leading to further trade.

It has also been suggested that our trade representatives abroad should be provided with samples of British products. Whether this be done or not, it is clear that prospective foreign customers should be able to see examples of the goods they are invited to purchase. In fact, the permanent exhibitions referred to above (p. 437) are likely to prove even more useful abroad than at home. In this connexion moveable exhibitions might be of service for bringing British products to the notice of many potential buyers situated in outlying districts. Our foreign trade representatives will also study local trade customs and requirements for the benefit of British firms seeking outlets abroad for their products.

At home a great deal can be done by a Ministry of Commerce which will study home industries, facilities for transport, the effect of tariffs, the possibilities of new inventions and discoveries, and the financial assistance

of new enterprises. Some of this work is now done by the National Physical Laboratory, which should therefore be placed under the control of the new department. The results of these studies should be given freely to all British enquirers who can make practical use of them. In the United States and Germany much more investigation and research work is undertaken by government departments than is the case in this country; and the results are freely given to those engaged in the industries concerned.

Another question for the Ministry of Commerce will be whether this country cannot be made more selfsupporting in war-time by encouraging production in certain lines which before the war were in the hands of foreign nations. In the past we have imported many articles and products which could have been made or grown at an equally low cost in this country. The fact that we did not produce these goods, while having equal natural facilities with other nations, proves that our manufacturers and producers were not so efficient as their foreign rivals; and the reasons for this state of things may well be studied by the new government department. There is also the question of financial assistance for commercial undertakings, which is likely to reach an acute stage after the war. Here again the favourable attitude of a government department, with perhaps some measure of control until the money is secured, will in all probability attract the private investor. A Ministry of Commerce would also deal with such of the government munition factories as are available for other purposes after the war. These factories, with their equipment, will form a valuable national asset if they can be set to work.

W. Q. HORSNAILL.

Art. 8. - THE EARLY

WOUNDS.

TREATMENT OF GUNSHOT

1. Buch der Cirurgia. By Hieronymo Brunschwig. Strassburg, 1497.

2. Practica in Arte Chirurgica copiosa. By Giovanni de Vigo. Rome, 1514.

3. Feldtbuch der Wundt-Artzney. By Hans von Gersdorff. Strassburg, 1517.

4. De Chirurgia Scriptores Optimi, quique veteres et recentiores. By Conrad Gesner. Zurich, 1555.

5. Euvres complètes d'Ambroise Paré: revues et collationnées sur toutes les Éditions. By J. F. Malgaigne. Three vols, with critical and historical chapters. Paris: Baillière, 1840.

6. Historische Studien über die Beurtheilung und Behandlung der Schusswunden. By Theodor Billroth. Berlin: Reimer, 1859.

7. Ambroise Paré and his Times, 1510-1590. By Stephen Paget. Putnam's Sons, 1897.

8. Geschichte der Chirurgie und ihrer Ausübung. By E. J. Gurlt. Three vols. Berlin: Hirschwald, 1898.

DESPITE the claim that is sometimes made for the great antiquity of the invention of gunpowder, it seems to have been unknown in Europe until the 13th century; and its discovery is usually attributed to the Franciscan Friar, Roger Bacon (1214-1292). Gunpowder is described by Bacon in his 'Epistolae de secretis operibus artis et naturae et de nullitate magiae,' a work which is certainly not later than 1249, since it is dedicated to William of Auvergne, Bishop of Paris, who died in that year. Its application to military purposes is sometimes placed to the credit of a semi-mythical German monk, Berthold the Black, about the year 1313.

In the second decade of the 14th century, cannon were manufactured at Ghent; and they were probably introduced into England in 1314, the year of the battle of Bannockburn. The English are believed to have made use of them in the campaign in Scotland in 1327, and cannon were certainly used by our troops at the battle of Crécy in 1346; while at the siege of Harfleur in 1415 there was a regular service of ordnance. In the

meantime the value of these instruments of warfare had been recognised by other nations; and the extraordinary achievements of the blind Czech general, John Ziska (1376-1424), in the Hussite wars were largely due to the efficiency of his field artillery. These early cannon fired great darts or stones. At the siege of Constantinople in 1453 the Turks made considerable use of artillery; and some of their pieces survived to engage the British squadron that forced the Dardanelles in 1807.

Hand-guns were invented later than these large pieces, and made their first appearance about the middle of the 15th century. They were massive and clumsy, and could only be used by a mounted man or from a cart; and, in spite of various improvements, they were for many years built of so heavy a type that they needed a special support when fired.* The use of a wide butt, bent at an angle, transformed the original gun or 'busse' into a 'harquebusse,' 'arquebus,' or 'hackbutt.' To this weapon a Nuremberg inventor, about 1515, fitted a wheellock; and, when provided with a flint or other percussion apparatus, the instrument became a 'musket.' Handguns were at first used for discharging arrows and stones, bullets being a later invention. Not until the 17th century, however, did the English entirely abandon the bow in favour of the musket. Even after the bow had gone out of use for the propulsion of penetrating shafts, it was still retained for the discharge of incendiary arrows. They were regarded as especially valuable in naval warfare, and were in use so late as the middle of the 17th century.‡ Fire lances similarly fitted were used for the last time in Europe in the first siege of Bristol in 1649, but fire arrows were used by the Chinese against the French so late as 1860.§ Hand grenades, much like those now adopted for trench warfare, were

*The history of firearms is given in two works by Max Jähns, 'Handbuch einer Geschichte des Kriegswesens,' Leipzig, 1880; and 'Entwickelungsgeschichte der alten Trutzwaffen, mit einem Anhange über die Feuerwaffen,' Berlin, 1899.

† See Sir Henry Knyvett's 'Defence of the Realme,' edited by Charles Hughes, Oxford, 1906, p. xxxii, etc.

Nathaniel Nye, Master Gunner of the City of Worcester, The Art of Gunnery,' London, 1647.

§ H. W. L. Hime, 'Gunpowder and Ammunition. Their Origin and Progress,' London, 1904.

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