§ 7 There is another peculiarity in the essence of political society, as compared with inert matter, which renders the method of scientific experiment unnecessary. With certain exceptions, such as the successive changes produced by growth, as well as by disease, in plants and animals, nature does not shift her attitude, and put herself in new forms and combinations spontaneously. Physical phenomena follow a constant law of sequence, which knows no exception, and compels its subjects to a blind, passive, and unchanging obedience. (29) Men in political society, on the other hand, are perpetually changing their position, and placing themselves in varied relations. Their spontaneous acts contemnunt, ut exprimi eis veritas nullo modo possit; alii tantâ sunt impatientiâ, ut quodvis mentiri, quam pati tormenta, velint; ita fit ut etiam vario modo fateantur, et non tantum se, verum etiam alios criminentur.'-Dig. xlviii. tit. 18. n. i. § 23, from Ulpian de Officio Proconsulis. See also Augustin, Civ. Dei, xix. 6. Concerning the fallibility of torture, see Beccaria, c. 16; Paley, Moral and Pol. Phil. b. vi. c. 9; Manzoni, Colonna Infame. Speaking of the Roman law respecting torture, Manzoni says:- Bisogna rammentarsi che quella legge era fatta in origine per gli schiavi, i quali, nell' abiezione e nelle perversità del gentilesimo, poterono esser considerati come cose e non persone, e sui quali si credeva quindi lecito qualunque esperimento, a segno che si tormentavano per iscoprire i delitti degli altri.'-p. 115. Horace describes wine as analogous to torture, because it extracts from men their secret thoughts, and induces them to divulge the truth: 'Tu lene tormentum ingenio admoves Plerumque duro: tu sapientium,' &c. Carm. iii. 21, 13. 'Reges dicuntur multis urgere culullis, Art. Poet. 434. Lord Bacon thus refers to these expressions, in his treatise De Augmentis, lib. viii:- Quare poeta perturbationes hujusmodi non inscite appellat torturas, quod ab iis secretà sua prodere homines compellantur.' Vol. ix. p. 42. Evandrus ap. Diogenian. (Prov. vii. 28) states that the Persians used intoxication, not torture, as a means of investigation. out. The influence of wine in disclosing the thoughts has been often pointed See Alcæus, fr. 44; ed. Schneidewin, cf. fr. 47; Theognis, v. 500: and the proverb olvos kaì áλýbeta (in vino veritas), in Plutarch, Artax. c. 15; Diogenian, vii. 28. (29) See Mr. Austin's explanation of the analogy between political laws, or laws proper, and those metaphorical laws which are called laws of nature.-Province of Jurisprudence determined, p. 186. serve as experiments, and leave us merely the task of observing the variations which they have themselves, of their own accord, brought about.(30) §8 It thus appears that the method of scientific experiment is not applicable to the subject-matter of political science, and indeed is not needed for determining the facts about which it is conversant. But although there can be no resort, in political science, to this method, for the purpose of ascertaining abstract truth, yet, in one class of cases, an approximation to it is! practicable. This happens, when certain parts of the political system have been modified by extraordinary events or influences; and a comparison is instituted between their normal or natural, and abnormal or altered, state, all other things remaining the same, or being unaffected by the cause in question. It has been remarked that, although physiology only admits partially of scientific experiments, their absence is in some degree supplied by the observation of morbid states of the organs; inasmuch as the change thus produced naturally in one organ, while the other organs remain unaffected, performs the part of an artificial experiment. For an artificial experiment isolates the phenomenon which is the subject of experimentation, and exposes it to certain selected influences, the surrounding medium remaining unchanged. (31) Similarly, in politics, the introduction of some new and extraordinary influence into the society-such as a (30) Bacon compares the influence of passion, in eliciting the inward thoughts, with the operations of art upon nature, which are in the nature of experiments. Quemadmodum enim in civilibus ingenium cujusque, et occultus animi affectuumque sensus, melius elicitur, cum quis in perturbatione ponitur, quam alias; simili modo, et occulta naturæ magis se produnt per vexationes artium, quam cum cursu suo meant.'-Nov. Org. i. 98. Compare the Descriptio Globi Intellectualis, where he calls arts naturæ vincula,' and says, denique natura ab arte et ministerio humano constringitur, et fingitur, et plane transfertur, et tanquam novatur, ut in artificialibus.'-Vol. xi. p. 5. (31) See Comte (Phil. Pos. tom. iii. p. 333), with the remarks of Mr. Mill (Logic, vol. i. p. 538). A similar observation is made by Dr. Carpenter:Certain diseased conditions (he says) occasionally lead to disclosure of the intimate structure of parts, much more complete than that effected by the knife and microscope of the anatomist.'-Comp. and Gen. Phys. p. 353. 7 L famine, a commercial crisis, an insurrection, or an invasionmay bring about sudden changes in certain institutions, or certain social states, while other parts of the political system are not directly affected; and the comparison of these with the normal and natural state may show the true relations of many phenomena, which would not otherwise have been perceived, and thus throw a strong light upon many trains of political causation. (2) The Irish potato-famine of the years 1845-9 may be adduced as a striking illustration of the manner in which an extraordinary influence, operating upon the body politic, may serve as an experimentum luciferum. The influence of this terrible calamity laid bare the evils in the state of the poorer classes in Ireland, and disclosed all the secret springs of her social economy, in as great a degree as could have been done by any artificial experiment, deliberately contrived for the mere purpose of discovering the truth. It may be added, that extraordinary events of this sort may likewise serve as practical experiments, though they are not intended for that purpose. National calamities try the strength of laws and institutions, as weight tries the strength of a beam or of a bridge, or as a disease tries the strength of a man's constitution. Nothing, says the mechanical aphorism, is stronger than its weakest point; for, the strain being uniform, wherever there is a defect of resistance, the support cracks. A famine, or a commercial crisis, searches out the weak points of a nation, and is sure to find them. It has an elective affinity with the rotten parts of the social fabric, and dissolves them by the combination.(3) г The study of monstrosities, or malformations, in the animal and vegetable kingdoms, has likewise been recommended as a means of tracing the laws of organic structure. (3) Something similar (32) See Comte, ib. tom. iv. p. 430-5. (33) Εὑρήσει τὰ σαθρὰ, ὦ ἄνδρες Αθηναῖοι, τῶν ἐκείνου πραγμάτων αὐτὸς ὁ πόλεμος, ἂν ἐπιχειρῶμεν.—Demosth. Philipp. i. p. 52. Multa quæ nunc ex intervallo non apparent, bellum aperiet.-Livy, xxviii. 44. iii. (34) See Carpenter's Comp. and Gen. Phys. § 205-6. Comte, ib. tom. p. 340. The Aztec monarchs kept a living museum of human monsters, to this may be done in the comparative anatomy of nations. Political institutions of an unusual and extraordinary character (which may be regarded as analogous to monstrosities in the organized world) may serve to throw a light upon the corresponding institution in its ordinary form, and thus, to a certain extent, discharge the function of a scientific experiment. $9 But although scientific experiments are inapplicable to politics, practical experiments, the experimenta fructifera of Bacon, fall within its province, and are perpetually employed by the politician for their own appropriate and special purpose. A government is, by the nature of its action, constantly trying experiments upon the community. All new measures, all laws enacted for the first time, are in the nature of experiments. They are not, indeed, scientific experiments; but they are experiments made for a practical purpose, and they are regarded merely as provisional and tentative, until experience has proved their fitness, and they are confirmed by the proof of practical success. Being tried, not in corpore vili, but upon the lives and fortunes of the people, the conduct of the experiment must be regulated by the nature of the subject upon which it is made. Hence, the progress of such experiments is carefully watched by the legislature; while the executive authorities proceed cautiously and gently with a new law, feeling their way as they advance, and exercising their discretion as to its more rapid or tardy advancement, either generally, or in particular districts. It is by trying a new law on a people, as the maker of new apparel fits it on the body, and by enlarging here and diminishing there where it does not suit the shape, that the legislature gradually adapts its work to the wants and feelings of the community. This is an experimental process, for the purpose, not of ascertaining a general truth, but of improving the institution, and of giving it the form best suited to the circumstances of the nation. dwarfs, &c., among the various collections of curiosities attached to their palace. Prescott's History of the Conquest of Mexico, b. 4. ch. i. But they were considered as a mere appendage to the royal state, and, as may be supposed, had no scientific purpose. All legislative acts are so far experimental, that they can always be repealed or altered; but a temporary law is avowedly an experiment, and its expiration at a fixed period is intended to ensure the reconsideration of the subject, with the knowledge of its actual operation. A temporary law or treaty may be compared with taking a house, or farm, or servant, or horse, on trial. In such a case, there is an express understanding that the person who makes the provisional engagement is to be at liberty to put an end to it at the expiration of the term, if he is dissatisfied. Local as well as temporary statutes have likewise an experimental character. They are laws on a small scale, applied only to places which desire a certain measure, and are manifestly in need of it. The experiment is tried within narrow limits of space, and its event is watched before the area of its operation is enlarged. § 10 In like manner, practical experiments upon education - may be tried, in the management of schools and other places of instruction. Different systems of teaching may be tried, and their results compared, so as to determine, by their success, which is preferable. So the effects of different systems of military or naval discipline may be tried in regiments or ships of war; and moral experiments upon the government of men may be thus made, as physical experiments may be made in the use of artillery, or military movements. In cases of this sort, the experimenter is also the ruler, and guides his practice by watching the results of his own measure. A pilot steering a ship along an unknown course, or through a dangerous channel, may proceed by constantly hauling up the lead, and ascertaining the depth. His whole progress is a series of experimental advances, each corrected after a time by a fresh observation. Travellers in an unknown country, and to a certain extent even generals in a campaign, direct their movements by this method. In literary composition likewise, and in the works of the fine arts, the author proceeds by way of experiment. He tries an outline or sketch of his subject, which he alters until it satisfies his judgment. He then elaborates the several parts by suc |