to mask the designs of their powerful neighbor to the north. If the Monroe Doctrine is to serve a beneficent purpose, if it is to promote concord rather than foment suspicions between the United States and Latin America, it must cease to be merely unilateral but must derive its sanction and effectiveness not from the United States alone but from all of America, or at least from those states whose stability and importance have won for them a definite place in the comity of nations. The remaining works of Dr. Lima include two delightful books dealing with the author's impressions of the United States and Japan;1 a carefully arranged bibliography of the manuscripts on Brazilian History existing in the British Museum;11 a series of lectures on the Portuguese Language and Brazilian Literature delivered in 1909 at the University of Louvain;12 an incisive and illuminating appreciation of the famous Brazilian novelist Machado de Assis and his works;13 an historical drama, "The King's Secretary”-in which the eighteenth century Portuguese statesman Alexandre de Gusmão is the hero. Finally mention should be made of a work which might be called "Impressions of a Diplomat." 14 This book, embodying the results of long experience and mature study, is really a highly constructive criticism of modern diplomacy with its too great emphasis on meaningless traditions and outgrown formulæ. Dr. Lima is a member of the Brazilian Academy, the Academy of Lisbon, and the Geographical and Historical Institute of Rio de Janeiro, in addition to a large number of other learned societies both in Europe and America. He is a member of the editing committee of the recently organized "Societé d'Histoire de l'Amérique latine" and has been entrusted with the preparation of Volume VIII of the monumental "History of Latin America" now being published by the Society. This volume, entitled "Brazil under the Imperial Régime," will unquestionably become the standard history of the Brazilian Empire. In this brief introduction a few words regarding the general scope and character of the present volume may not be out of place. Within 10 No Japão, Impressões da terra e da gente. (Rio de Janeiro, 1903.) Nos Estados Unidos, Impressões politicas e sociaes. (Leipzig, 1899.) 11 Relacão dos Manucriptos do Museu Britannico de interesse para o Brazil. (Rio de Janeiro, 1903.) 12 La langue portugaise, La littérature brésilienne, conférences faites à l'Université de Louvain. (Anvers, 1909.) 13 Machado de Assis et son oeuvre littéraire. (Paris, 1909.) 15 Le Brésil sous le régime imperial. the small compass of six lectures Dr. Lima has dealt with the social, political and even the intellectual evolution of Brazil, at the same time instituting comparisons with similar or parallel movements in Spanish America and in what for want of a better term may be called AngloSaxon America. Such an undertaking is attended with many difficulties. A merely chronological treatment would become almost inevitably an epitome of dates and proper names, a characteristic all too common to histories of Latin America. On the other hand, a series of generalizations covering the entire field would necessarily be too vague or abstract to be entirely satisfactory. Dr. Lima has frankly recognized that it would be impossible to cover adequately every phase of his subject and has therefore confined himself to a somewhat detailed discussion of a comparatively small number of topics which would presumably be of interest to an American University audience. It is obvious that this method has certain distinct advantages. It permits the lecturer, for instance, to enlarge on various problems whose solution has taxed the best energies of the inhabitants of both North and South America. Such a problem is the abolition of negro slavery. Dr. Lima is at pains to point out the different aspects which the institution of slavery assumed in Brazil, Spanish America, and the United States; he makes clear the circumstances under which abolition was accomplished; and finally explains why, in the case of Brazil, complete emancipation had to wait until nearly the end of the ninteenth century while in the case of Spanish America it synchronized with the separation of the colonies from the mother country. Another subject capable of furnishing interesting parallels is the struggle for political independence in the various sections of the two Americas. Dr. Lima indicates certain grievances, economic, social and political, which the English, Spanish and Portuguese colonists harbored in common against their respective mother countries; grievances which in English and Spanish America culminated in the Wars of Independence. He compares at length the two great protagonists of this struggle in South America-Bolívar and San Martin; and to make the comparison still more effective he emphasizes the many points of resemblance between Bolívar and Napoleon, and San Martin and Washington. Finally, he carefully analyzes the factors which led the new nations of the two Americas to develop along divergent lines. The dignified and relatively peaceful evolution of Brazil is to be attributed in large part to the influence of an imported but thoroughly acclimated imperial dynasty, while the turbulence and anarchy so characteristic of the first decades of the Spanish American Republics find their historical explanation in certain pernicious heritages from the colonial regime, the extinction of the best elements of the population in the long and devastating Wars of Independence, and lastly unrestrained political activity divorced from civic education. That the establishment of a number of European dynasties in Spanish America would have tended towards orderly development and political cohesion is suggested by the efforts made by both San Martin and Bolívar to found in America some sort of a liberal monarchy. This important topic-the attempted foundation of a European or creole dynasty in Spanish America-receives in the present volume its first adequate treatment in English. To pursue further this analysis of the various topics so ably discussed by Dr. Lima would not only unduly expand the limits of this brief introduction but would also infringe upon the lectures themselves. Especially suggestive, however, is the author's treatment of such subjects as the civilization of Colonial Spanish America; the relation of the colonists to the indigenous races; the rôle of the clergy, especially the Jesuits, during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries; the attempt to apply the principles of federalism to communities in which the civic consciousness is rudimentary; the formative influences in the intellectual evolution of Brazil and the Spanish American Republics; and finally the growth of idealism. In conclusion it may be noted that the topical method followed by Dr. Lima is not without its disadvantages. It is evident that only those who are in possession of a general knowledge of the leading facts of Latin American History are able fully to profit from the lecturer's generalizations and deductions. Unfortunately, owing to the fact that among us Latin America is only beginning to receive an attention commensurate with its importance, such a background of general knowledge is but rarely found even among professional students of history. To meet this situation, as well as to increase the general usefulness of the lectures, the editor has ventured to append a number of explanatory notes and bibliographical references. With few exceptions the notes refer only to events or personages connected with Latin America and the explanations are in every case as brief as is consistent with clearness. The bibliographical references are in general confined to books in English or French; Portuguese and Spanish works are cited only when more available references are lacking. STANFORD UNIVERSITY, CAL., March, 1914. P. A. MARTIN. LECTURE I. The conquest of America.-Religious defence of the native element.-Indians and negroes.-The color problem and the discrimination against the colonists.-The institution of slavery and the conditions of political independence in the Spanish and Portuguese colonies, affecting diversely the abolition of slavery.-The first Spanish American civil war and the verdict of history in regard to it.-The social organization in the possessions of the New World.-The Indians and the clergy.The part taken by the Jesuits.-The fusion of the races and the Neo-European product.-Causes of the separation: disregard of nationality and economic exploitation. Monopolies and prohibitions.-Spiritual tutelage and emancipation.-Historical reasons for the Catholic intolerance.-Intellectual revival of the Iberian Peninsula during the Spanish reign of Charles III, and under the Portuguese dictatorship of the Marquis de Pombal.-Influence of this revival in the colonies. T HE conquest of Spanish and Portuguese America is a fairly familiar subject to the great number of those who, in the country of Prescott, cultivate the taste for reading. You have, moreover, the good fortune to count among your men of letters, historians who have given to their writings on certain foreign subjects a picturesque or romantic touch, or a documentary character, in each case superior and final. This fact deserves all the more to be noted inasmuch as it not only proves the contrary of the alleged exclusively utilitarian character of your civilization, but is moreover an evidence of your intellectuality. This is an aspect under which you are less known in our Latin-American countries, notwithstanding your university development, to which I owe my presence here today. Thus it was by treating themes outside, so to speak, of your own evolution, and identifying themselves with these, that the name of Parkman has become inseparably associated with the history of the adventures of the French in Canada, that of Washington Irving with the Arabian life in the Vega of Andalusia and in the gardens of Granada, and that of John Lothrop Motley with the heroic struggle of the Dutch for religious freedom and the civil and political franchise. Under such circumstances it would be idle, not to say pretentious, to repeat here things you all know from the learned and charming works of your authors, and, as regards the particular subject I am about to present to you, from the works of such a distinguished historian as Prescott. I must add, however, that the study of such topics cannot but arouse a certain patri otic pride, in addition to the general human emotion called forth by such extraordinary events. The conquest of America was, indeed, one of the decisive events both in the material and moral evolution of the world as well as in the history of mankind, and no educated person of the present day is ignorant of its social consequences; they form part of an ordinary education. The conquest of Mexico and Peru constitutes the most impressive scene of this great pageant and the most interesting feature of the achievements of the Castilians in the New World. These achievements, though attended by violence, were destined to be fruitful, since the barbarian civilizations-if we may thus designate the semi-civilizations destroyed by the European invader-represented the formless though least crude expression of the development attained by the American race, whether autochthon or immigrant. For it would be futile to deny that the Christian civilization of the Spaniards, though darkened by avarice and crime, represented a higher plane of human progress than that reached by the natives of either Mexico, Yucatan or Peru. For this reason the great sacrifice consummated in those regions seems all the more cruel to us, the pathetic and touching figures of Guatemotzin [1] and Atahualpa [2] being special objects of our pity; but we must not forget that throughout the entire continent, from Hudson Bay to Tierra del Fuego, the struggle between the conquerors and the conquered was equally violent and bloody. Whether impelled by mere thirst for gold and silver, or urged on by less base motives, Europeans in every part of the New World employed the same system of oppression and destruction. The use of such methods seems to us perhaps greater among the Spanish than among the English and Portuguese, not because they really were so, but because our imagination demands that the methods of conquest should be in proportion to the results obtained. Yet, notwithstanding the great wealth of gold and diamonds existing in the Brazilian plateau of Minas Geraes [3] during the eighteenth century, no other metropolis having trans-Atlantic colonies could have boasted, as did the Spanish, that from the gold and silver mines of Mexico alone it had received during the colonial period, as the quinto or fifth due the royal treasury, more than ten thousand millions of dollars. It is therefore not surprising that Spain should have wasted all her energies in the maintenance of an empire across the seas which was the real source of her wealth. Yet a closer scrutiny would show that this wealth was more apparent than real. During the course of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries Spain had changed from a producing to an |