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"The centrum is formed entirely by the skeletogenous layer remaining outside the elastica, its cartilage is derived from the dorsal and ventral arcualia." This cartilage surrounds the chordal sheath with a complete mantle (Rhodeus), and is ossified later on. In the trout,. most of the material necessary for the formation of the centrum is indifferent membrana reuniens and ossifies directly.

Papers primarily on the development of the vertebral column in teleosts. Albrecht, A. 1902.1; Alessi, C. (Clupeida) 1898.1; Calberla, E. 1877.2; Goette, A. 1873.1 (v), 1878.4; Goronowitsch, N. (Salmonida) 1885.1; ★Grassi, G. B. 1883.1-1885.1;

Klaatsch, H. 1892.1; Lotz, T. 1864.1; Reinhard, W. (Cyprinoids) 1888.1; Roule, L. 1908.3; Scheel, C. 1893.1; Sella, M. (Murænida) 1911.2; ★Stéphan, P. 1898.1, 1900.1; Ussow, S. A. 1900.1, 1906.1; Wyman, J. 1856.2.

Structure or morphology of the vertebral column or the definitive vertebra. Teleostei. Battista, G. 1883.1. Doras. Bliss, R. 1872.2. Murana. Ciamician, J. 1878.1. - Cobitida. Grobben, C. 1875.1. Clupeida. Lombardo, A. C. 1884.1.

Absence of true articular apophyses, teleosts. Alix, E. 1874.1. - Cervical and occipital vertebræ of Teleosts. Robertson, C. 1861.1.

Dipnoi

Chordal sheath strengthened by invasion of skeletogenous cells, therefore with possibility of chorda-centra, but the

partly chondrified chordal sheath remains unsegmented, i. e., no centra are formed.

Structure in Dipnoi. Günther, A. C. 1871.3; Hasse, J. C. 1892.1; Klaatsch, H. 1893.1; Wiedersheim, R. E. 1880.2.

VISCERAL SKELETON

Comprising the structure of the visceral and branchial arches. Although primitively cartilaginous, in the Teleostei these parts are ossified as cartilage bones. The visceral skeleton consists of a series of supporting bars, the visceral arches, arising in the mesenchymatous tissue between the visceral clefts. The two anterior visceral arches are specially designated, the first is the mandibular and the second is the hyoid arch. The remaining arches are collectively called branchial or gill arches.

For the musculature of the visceral arches. see Cranial and visceral muscles under Myology.

Embryonic development of the visceral arches, their topographic role, etc. Braus. H. 1904.2; ★Dohrn, F. A. 1882.2 (vii); Froriep, A. 1891.1; ★Vialleton, L. 1908.2.

Development in Lepidosiren and Protopterus. Agar, W. E. 1906.1. - Selachii. ★Gibian, A. 1912.1. - Syngnathus. MeMurrich, J. P. 1883.1. Sharks and

skates.

thias.

ostei.

Acan

- Tele

Parker, W. K. 1879.2. Severtzov, A. N. 1899.1. Voskoboinikov, M. M. 1910.1.

Salmo. Zanichelli, W. 1909.1.

Morphology of the visceral skeleton or "Ligamentum denticulatum of Amphioxus. Benham, W. B. 1893.1; Rolph, W. 1875.2.

Morphology of the visceral skeleton of Cyclostomata, chiefly Petromyzon, the 80called hyobranchial skeleton or "branchial basket." Alix, E. 1880.1; Ayers, H. & Jackson, C. M. 1900.1; Burne, R. H. 1892.1; Dohrn, F. A. 1882.2 (v); ★Huxley, T. H. 1876.2; Kupffer, C. W. 1895.1; Neumayer, L. 1910.1; ★Parker, W. K. 1883.1; Schaffer, J. 1901.2; Severtzov, A. N. 1914.1; Gaupp, E. Add. 1904.1.

Morphology of the visceral skeleton in adult Selachii. Fürbringer, K. 1903.1; ★Gadow, H. 1888.1; Garman, S. (Fine figures) 1913.1; ★Gegenbaur, C. 1864.2 (iii); Molin, R. 1859.1. - Chlamydoselachus. Goodey, T. 1910.1. - Echinorhinus. Ridewood, W. G. 1899.1. —Lamargus. White, P. J. 1893.1. Pristiophorus. Hoffmann, L. Add. 1914.1.

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Morphology of the visceral skeleton in the Chimaroid or holocephalic' skull. Dean, B. 1906.1; Hubrecht, A. A. 1876.1; Woodward, A. S. 1889.2 (ii).

Morphology of visceral skeleton in Gonoidei and Neoceratodus. ★Wijhe, J. W. 1880.1, 1882.1.

Morphology of visceral skeleton in Symbranchida. Weyenbergh, H. 1878.4,

1881.1.

Relations of mandibular and hyoid arches in Hybodus. Woodward, A. S. 1886.3.

Derivatives of mandibular and hyoid arches with especial references to the homologies of the mammalian auditory ossicles. Albrecht, P. 1884.1; Gadow, H. 1888.1; Debierre, C. Add. 1885.1.

Visceral clefts

Visceral arch theory of origin of jaw. Jaekel, O. 1905.1, 1906.4, 1907.1.

Labial cartilages of sharks, often considered remnants of pre-mandibular arches. Pollard, H. B. 1895.3.

Suggestion of former existence of an arch and an additional visceral cleft between mandibular and hyoid arches. Beard, J. 1885.2; Dohrn, A. 1882.2 (vii); Wijhe, J. W. 1882.2.

Existence of skeletal elements between the mandibular and hyoid arches in Lamargus and Hexanchus. White, P. J. 1895.1. HYOID ARCH

Anatomy of the hyoid arch in Neoceratodus. Ridewood, W. G. 1894.1.

Anatomy of the "tongue-bone," being the median basi-hyal element of the second visceral or hyoid arch. Budge, J. (Sphyræna) 1848.1; Dohrn, F. A. 1882.2 (vii); Eichwald, C. E. 1833.1; Geoffroy-SaintHilaire, E. 1817.3, 1832.1.

For the fleshy tongue, see below Oral cavity under Alimentary canal.

For the conditions of the suspension of the lower jaw to the hyomandibular or proximal sector of the hyoid arch, see under Skull. See especially ★Gregory, W. K. 1904.2. Branchial or gill arches

Development in Selachii. Dohrn, F. A. 1882.2 (ix, xi, xii). Phylogeny. Gaskell, W. H. 1898.1 (iii). Development. Remak, R. 1855.1.

Structure in Murænida. Popta, C. M. 1904.1. Vinciguerra, D. 1893.4.

Dentex.

Presence of vestigial sixth and seventh arches, respectively__in Notidanus and Chlamydoselachus. Hawkes, (Mrs.) O. A. 1905.1, 1907.1.

Gill rakers: cartilaginous or bony filaments on the inner side of the branchial arches. - Comparative studies on their structure in various fishes. Popta, C. M. 1901.2,.3; Troschel, F. H. 1849.2;

Zander, E. 1903.2, 1906.1,,2.

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Although forming a straining mechanism in all fishes, in some genera they form an exceptionally close-set branchial sieve. Such structure in Polyodon. Imms, A. D. 1904.1. Rhincodon. Lütken, C. F. 1874.2. - Basking shark (Cetorhinus). Allman, G. J. 1876.1; Bocage, J. V. 1878.1; Day, F. 1885.3; Hendricks, K. 1908.1, 1909.1; Leriche, M. 1908.8; Pavesi, P. 1874.1; Steenstrup, J. J. 1873.1, 1875.1; Turner, W. 1879.2; Macalister, A. Add. 1879.1. - Mobula. Vaillant, L. L. 1912.1.

Extrabranchial cartilages of Elasmobranchs. Foote, E. 1895.1: Fürbringer, M. 1903.2; Ridewood, W. G. 1897.1; White, P. J. 1896.1.

For the branchial filaments, see Gills under Respiratory organs.

For the interbranchial or respiratory muscles, see Cranial and visceral muscles under Myology.

For the branchial arch hypothesis" of the origin of limbs (Gegenbaur's view), see Phylogenesis of limbs under Evolution.

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visceral

clefts.

Mas

Development of the Dohrn, F. A. 1882.2 (xxiii, xxiv); terman, A. T. 1898.1; Spengel, J. W. 1904.1; Vialleton, L. 1906.1.

Additional references to such development will be found under Head.

Presence of seven visceral clefts in shark embryos. Bemmelen, J. F. 1886.1.

Arrangement, Selache maxima. Jaekel, O. 1890.1.

For the hyomandibular cleft, i. e., cleft between mandibular and hyoid arches, a functional vestige in fishes when present, see Spiracle under Respiratory organs.

For Dohrn's theory of the origin of the mouth through the coalescence of a pair of gill clefts see Oral cavity under Alimentary canal.

VISION

For the organ of vision, see Eye.

For "color vision," see Color perception under Behavior.

For the influence of vision on Changes in Coloration, see under Coloration.

For the latest and most comprehensive papers on vision in fishes, see Baglioni, S. 1910.1; Hess, C. 1911.1, 1913.1, Add. 1912.1, 1914.1; Tschermak, A. 1915.1. Miscellaneous items. Franz, V. 1907.4; Fripp, H. E. 1866.1; Henshall, J. A. 1878.1; Jeffries, B. J. 1869.1; Milewski, A. 1915.11; Plateau, F. A. 1866.1,.2; Ward, F. 1908.1; Edwards, G.

Reinhardt, L. 1902.1;
Brunton, J. Add. 1882.1;
Add. 1763.1; Lanik, A. Add. 1914.1;
Vigueron, H. Add. 1913.1; Wernicke, O.
Add. 1895.1.

Various researches, chiefly experimental. - Binocular vision. Apgar, A. C. 1886.1; Tschermak, A. 1902.1, 1914.1. Subaqueous vision. Dudgeon, R. E. 1871.1; Wood, R. W. 1906.1, Add. 1906.1. Vision, deep-sea fishes. Chun, C. 1893.1.

Influence of vision on movements, Mustelus. Parker, G. H. 1910.2.

Rheotropism considered an optical reflex. Lyon, E. P. 1905.1, 1909.1.

For effects of excision of eye upon coloration, see under Coloration. See especially Buijtendijk, F. J. 1911.1; Lubach, D. 1864.2; Pouchet, G. 1877.1, 1879.1.

Accommodation in vision. In fishes accommodation is accomplished through the pulling inward and backward or retinalward of the lens by the muscle named by Beer, Musculus retractor lentis, which is formed by the Processus falciformis, a median prolongation of the choroid and its expanded outer portion, the Campanula Halleri.

General accounts, including physiological researches. Beer, T. 1894.1, 1898.1; Brass, A. 1881.1; Deichsel, G. 1908.1; Franz, V. 1905.1, 1910.3; Pflugk, A. 1911.1; Sicherer, O. 1911.1; Hess, C. Add. 1912.1.

Vision-Cont'd.

Discovery of the muscle of accommodation. Dalrymple, J. 1838.1; Leydig, F. 1852.1; Manz, W. 1858.1, Add. 1857.1; Wallace, W. C. 1834.1, 1835.1, 1838.1.

Tensor muscle of choroid in teleosts, homologous with the ciliary muscles which effect accommodation in higher vertebrates. Structure. Grynfeltt, E. 1908.1-1910.4.

·Ciliary muscle considered lacking. Lee, R. J. 1869.1.

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Marine acraniate fish-like chordates. General treatise. Delage, M. Y. & Hérouard, E. 1898.1; Willey, A. 1894.1.

Classification and geographical distribution. Tattersall, W. M. 1903.1. - For a map showing the geographical distribution of the Cephalochordata, see Herdman, W. A. 1904.1 (p. 138).

Taxonomy of forms from - Maldive and Laccadive Islands. Cooper, C. F. 1903.1; Parker, G. H. 1904.3. - Japan. Jordan, D. S. & Snyder, J. O. 1901.12. Ceylon. Tattersall, W. M. 1903.2.

Family Amphioxidida

Amphioxides (A pelagic form). Tax-
onomy and relationships. Goldschmidt,
R. 1905.1, 1906.1, 1909.1, Add. 1905.1.
Review of the above. Willey, A. 1906.1.

Family Branchiostomida
Marine littoral forms

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Nat

Amphioxus (Branchiostoma). ural history, descriptions of young, etc. Bert, P. 1867.1,.5; Clark, H. J. 1865.1; Harting, P. 1876.1; Kemna, A. 1906.1; Krause, W. 1898.1; Lindsay, A. 1857.1; Müller, J. 1839.1, 1841.2; Quatrefages, J. L. 1845.1; Reichert, C. B. 1870.1; Rice, H. J. 1878.1; Schultze, M. J. 1851.1; Schneider, A. F. 1878.1; Sundevall, C. J. 1840.1; Sundewall, F. 1843.1; Willey, A. 1891.1, 1901.1; Yung, E. J. 1906.1; Putnam, F. W. Add. 1865.1.

Phylogenetic relationships.

Relation

to Balanoglossus. MacBride, E. W. 1897.1.

Amphioxus a slightly metamorphosed tunicate (with consideration of homologies). Wijhe, J. W. 1906.1, 1914.1,.2. "Amphioxus and the ancestry of the vertebrates." Willey, A. 1894.1.

Asymmetron.

Natural history notes. Andrews, E. A. 1893.1; Benham, W. B. 1901.1, 1901.2; Mark, E. L. 1904.1; Römer, F. 1896.1; Willey, A. 1896.1.

Epigonichthys. Natural history. Harting, P. 1877.1; Passzlavsky, J. 1877.1;

Peters, W. C. H. 1876.1.

CRANIATA

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1 Arranged in general according to the system used in the Cambridge Natural History-this for convenience.

Confined chiefly to natural history, occurrence and the larger and more recent papers on fossil forms and taxonomy. Rarely going below genera, save in the case of the fishes of great economic as well as scientific importance (i. e. Anguilla, Pleuronectidæ, Salmonidæ, etc.).

For further data on natural history, see Habits, Reproduction, etc., in Morphological Section. For further references to fossil fishes, see the elaborate section Paleontology, also Hay, O. P. 1902.1, and Woodward, A. S. 1889.2, and also the Bibliography of North American Palæontology cited in Part IV, General Bibliographies. For further data on taxonomy and occurrence, see section Fauna of the World, and for particular regions, see such great faunistic and taxonomic works as Day, F. 1875.1, Boulenger, G. A. Add. 1909.1, Eigenmann, C. H. 1912.2, Goode & Bean, 1896.1, Jordan & Evermann, 1896.1. For new species, see Zoological Record.

For all other subjects, see the Morphological Section.

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ström, G. C. 1862.1; Ferry, L. 1883.1; Frauen, M. 1879.1; Gage, S. H. 1891.1; ★Geisenheyner, L. 1911.1; Gulliver, G. 1870.1; Hilgendorf, F. M. 1890.1; Holland, (Maj.) - 1870.1; Kouliabko, A. 1897.1; Larbalétrier, A. 1898.1; Leonhardt, E. E. 1903.7; Lubosch, W. 1902.1; Moller, A. F. 1897.1; Nau, B. S. 1787.1; Pollen, F. P. 1871.6; Redeke, H. C. 1901.1; Roy, E. 1906.1; Smith, John A. 1863.6; Surface, H. A. 1898.1; Tilden, J. 1815.1; Anon. 391, 432; Blanc, H. Add. 1890.1.

Variations. Hatta, S. 1911.1; Rosmini, O. 1901.1. - Identity of P. planeri and P. fluviatilis. Wajgel, L. 1883.1.

Genera found only in southern waters Geotria. Natural history. Berg, C. 1893.1; Dendy, A. & Olliver, M. F. 1902.1; Gray, J. E. 1851.2; Roché, G. 1893.2.

Macrophthalmia: Natural history, taxonomy, etc. Dean, B. 1899.7; Plate, L. H. 1897.1; Philippi, R. A. 1865.1; Prometheus. 1899.2; Steuber, N. J. 1905.1.

Mordacia. Natural history notes. Gill, T. N. 1893.5, 1895.6; Hall, E. S. 1865.1. CLASS PISCES

Aquatic craniates with true jaws (Gnathostomes).

SUB-CLASS ELASMOBRANCHII
Gnathostome fishes with cartilaginous

skeleton.

Taxonomy and systematic position. General treatises. ★Hasse, J. C. 1879.1; Jaekel, O. 1891.3. Review of Japanese forms. Jordan, D. S. & Fowler, H. W. Australian species. Ogilby,

J. D. 1888.1, 1889.2.

Ammocœtes (the larval form of Petromyzon). 1903.5. · Natural history. Cederström, G. C. 1861.1; Holfert, H. F. 1870.1; EvoluMeek, S. E. 1890.2. tionary history. Gaskell, W. H. 1898.1 (viii).

Metamorphosis of Ammocætes into Petromyzon. Baur, A. 1867.1; Benecke, B. 1880.3,.7; ★Bujor, P. 1891.1,.2; Gage, S. H. 1891.1, 1893.2, 1894.1, 1898.1, 1899.1; Kaensche, C. C. 1890.1. See also p. 368.

Genera found only in northern waters For a

map showing the geographical distribution of the northern Petromyzontida, see Meek, A. 1916.1 (p. 28).

1844.1.

Fossil Elasmobranchii. Synopsis with
geological arrangement. Agassiz, J. L.
Chronological distribution.
Hay, O. P. 1901.1. Taxonomy of fossil
forms. ★Woodward, A. S. 1889.2.
For Pre-Linnæan references to fossil Elas-
mobranch teeth see under Bufonites and
Glossopetras in section on Palæontology.

ORDER PLEUROPTERYGII
From the Paleozoic
Family Cladoselachida

Cladoselache.

Morphology and re

lationships. ★Dean, B. 1893.2, 1894.1,

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