Anatomy of liver in various fishes. Ammocætes and Petromyzon. Dervieux, L. 1898.1; Kuliabko, A. A. 1898.1. Ameiurus. Macallum, A. B. 1884.1. Callionymus. Pilliet, A. H. 1889.1. Selachii. Pilliet, A. H. 1890.2. Teleosts. Segerstråle, E. 1910.1. - Clarias. Weber, M. C. 1891.1.

Development, general papers. ★Choronshitsky, B. 1900.1; Piper, H. 1902.1,.2,.3. Development in various fishes and groups of fishes. Ammocætes. Brachet, A. 1897.1. Elasmobranchii. Brachet, A. 1896.1; Hammar, J. A. 1893.1, 1897.1; Scammon, R. E. 1913.1. Dipnoi. Broman, I. 1905.1; Neumayer, L. (Ceratodus) 1904.1,.3. - Amphioxus. Hammar, J. A. 1898.1. Acipenser. Nicolas, A. Trout. Stöhr, P. A. 1893.1;

1904.1.

Stricker, F. 1899.1.

Oppel,

Histology. Holm, J. F. 1897.1; A. Add. 1900.1. Acipenser and Ceratodus. Bluntschli, H. 1903.1, 1904.1. Selachii. Scammon, R. E. 1915.1. Amphioxus. Zarnik, B. 1905.1.

Anatomy. Cabibbe, Development. Choronshit

sky, B. 1900.1. Development, ElasmoScammon, R. E. 1913.1.

branchs.

Biliary calculi in squeteague. Tower, R. W. 1902.1.

For the organs of locomotion, see Fins. For the flight of fishes, see Flying-fishes. For the hydrostatic functions of the swimbladder, see under Air bladder.

For the maintenance of equilibrium, see under Hearing and the static sense.

For a comprehensive review in German of all technical researches on locomotion, see Du Bois-Reymond, R. Add. 1914.1. For a popular treatise in English on all kinds of locomotion in animals including fishes, see Pettigrew, J. B. Add. 1883.1.

Miscellaneous items, not readily classifiable. Relation of number of myotomes to bodily rigidity. Magnan, A. & La Riboisière, J. 1912.1. Methods of fixation against strong currents by means of spines. Thilo, O. 1900.1, 1903.1. fluence of high pressures on muscular contraction. Regnard, P. 1887.1.- Demonstration of steering mechanism of fishes. Völker, H. 1911.1.

Experimental researches

In

Effects on locomotion, of the extirpation or section of various parts of the central nervous system. Bethe, A. 1899.1; Polimanti, O. 1911.3..5, 1913.1; Rynberk, G. A. 1905.5, 1906.4, Add. 1904.1; Corblin, H. Add. 1888.1.

Experiments in removing different fins; caudal considered chief locomotor organ of sharks. Mayer, P. 1886.1. Similar exps. with teleosts. Monoyer, F. 1866.1,.2. Similar experiments with the cyprinodont, Goodea. Dugès, A. 1905.1,.2. - Comment on Dugès. Osburn, R. C. 1906.1.

Swimming in fishes Text in

General accounts.

- Dutch.

Brugmans, S. J. 1812.1; Winkler, T. C. 1860.3. -French. Amans, P. C. 1887.1, 1888.1; GiraudChevrel, R. 1913.1; Teulon, M. A. 1856.1. Add. 1858.1. German. Bickel, A. 1896.1; Meier, H. 1860.1; Thilo, O. 1901.1. Italian. Ducceschi, V. Add. 1903.1.

Miscellaneous and relatively unimpor tant papers. Text in English. Bennett, E. F. 1899.1; Buckland, W. 1844.1; Kent, W. S. 1873.1, 1874.3; Nichols, J. T. 1912.7; Wilder, B. G. 1870.1. Miscellaneous papers in German. Ahlers, C. 1900.1; Brehm, A. E. 1871.1; Kathariner, L. 1899.1; Schlesinger, G. 1911.2; Anon. 175, 609, 610.

Miscellaneous papers with text in French. Corblin, H. 1887.1, Add. 1888.1; Italian. Dei, A. Gouriet, E. 1864.1. Harting, P. 1873.3.

1896.1.

- Norwegian. Kent, W. S. 1874.2. Finnish. Regnard, P. 1893.3. Staff, F. 1911.1.

TYPES OF SWIMMING Borelli's theory; that in swimming, the tail vibrates on either side of a given line which corresponds to the aris of the fish when the body is straight. This is the aris of motion; the tail acts as a rudder. Borelli, G. A. Pre-Linn. 1680.1. Remarks on Borelli. Winslow, J. B. Pre-Linn. 1738.1. Undulating, wriggling, or eel-like locomotion and related types. Schlesinger, G. 1911.1,.3; ★Strasser, H. 1882.1, 1883.1.

Progression of sharks by undulation or the swaying from side to side of the unsymmetrical caudal fin and the whole pos terior part of the body. Ahlborn, C. G. 1895.2; Polimanti, O. 1911.3.

Screw propeller action of single median dorsal fin rapidly vibrating from end to end in pipefishes, Syngnathida. - Hippo campus. Anthony, R. & Chevroton, L. 1913.1; Ishihava, M. 1905.1. - Syngnathus. Weinland, D. F. 1856.2.

Progression by vibration of the elongated median anal fin of Notopterida. Schlesinger, G. 1910.3.

Swimming with tail and walking on bottom with dactyliform rays of the pectorals, Trigla. Chabry, L. 1883.1; Deslongchamps, J. A. 1843.1; Polimanti, 0. 1911.3. - Prionotus, Allen, H. 1886.1. Observations on the vertical swimming position of Amphisile strigata. Willey, A. Add. 1902.1.

Unusual types of locomotion Climbing habits and overland progression of the "climbing-perch," Anabas scandens, Daldorff, D. C. 1797.1; Mitchell, J.

1864.1; Neill, B. A. 1864.1; Zur Mühlen, M. 1911.22; Layard, E. L. Add. 1853.1. Climbing of the Andean catfish, Arges marmoratus. Johnson, R. D. 1912.1, Add. 1913.1.

Ichthyopatolites or petrified track-wings of ambulatory fishes. Buckland, W. 1843.1.

Leaping habits of marine fishes, ascent of water-falls, etc. Clapham, T. 1879.2; Dumesnil, A. 1906.1; Holder, C. F. 1903.3; Smith, Everett 1879.1.

Lampreys ascending water-falls. Smith, H. M. 1900.3, 1902.6.

LUMINOSITY AND PHOSPHORESCENCE (OF FISHES)

Comprising the production of light by means of specialized photogenic organs, which occur chiefly in the deep-sea fishes.

Miscellaneous observations, notes, popular accounts, etc., on the luminosity or phosphorescence of fishes, luminous fishes, phosphorescent organs, etc.

Text in English. Bell, F. J. 1881.1; Hall, J. J. 1872.1; Franklin, C. L. 1900.1; Kent, W. S. 1873.4; ★McIntosh, W. C. 1885.3, 1906.3; Nicols, A. 1872.1; Nutting, C. C. 1899.2; Shufeldt, R. W. 1894.1, 1907.1; Weber, M. C. 1901.1.

Text in French. Deslongchamps, J. A. 1838.1; Gadeau de Kerville, H. 1890.1; Khvorostansky, C. 1892.1; Mulder, E.

1861.1.

Text in German. Dittrich, R. 1888.1; Doflein, F. J. 1906.3; Frisch, K. 1909.1; Gadeau de Kerville, H. 1893.1; Haupt, H. 1903.1; Marenzeller, E. 1889.1; Pütter, A. 1905.1; Radziszewski, B. 1880.1; Schenkling-Prévôt, 1902.1; Schneider, G. 1904.9; Stenta, M. 1905.1; Thilo, O. 1910.2; Zugmayer, E. 1910.2; Anon. 338.

Text in Italian. Giglioli, E. H. 1870.1. Dutch. Harting, P. 1866.5; Mulder, E. 1859.1; Anon. 602. Swedish. Lönnberg, A. J. 1904.1. -Latin. La Faille,

J. M. Add. 1821.1.

LIGHT PRODUCTION
Physiology of luminescence

For a scholarly treatise on light production in all groups of animals including fishes,

with a full bibliography, see Mangold, E. Add. 1910.1.

An excellent recent physico-chemical treatise, including all groups of lightproducing organisms, is “The nature of

animal light" by E. Newton Harvey. Philadelphia and London (Monographs on experimental biology), 1920, 182 pp., 35 figs.

Physical base of animal phosphorescence. Watase, S. 1895.1.

Three-day old specimens of Ephippus (surface fishes without luminous organs) were very decidedly phosphorescent at night when sudden impulses were imparted to the water. Ryder, J. A. 1880.1.

Observations on the emission of light by living fishes. Our belief in the existence of luminous organs in fishes is based on their comparative structure and the following few actual observations on living fishes.

For a résumé of all such observations, including a few additional to those given below, see Brauer, A. 1908.2 (pp. 127-133). These are repeated in Mangold, E. 1907.1 and 1910.1.

First notice of light emission in fishes. Astronesthes fieldii, observed during a voyage to Brazil, "sent forth two strong and vivid greenish lights, which intermitted momentarily, and ceased altogether when the fish died." Reinhardt, J. T. 1853.1, 1854.1. Astronesthes observed also by Vanhöffen, E. 1901.1.

Luminosity of post-orbital organ of Melanostomias melanops seen during Valdivia Expedition. Brauer, A. 1908.2 (p. 87).

Porichthys, placed in an aquarium made alkaline with ammonia water, exhibited a brilliant white light for about twenty minutes. Greene, C. W. 1899.1.

A nearly dead specimen of Scopelus boops dredged off the Cape of Good Hope, "displayed a faint though an undoubted luminosity in the pectoral region." Guppy,

H. B. 1882.1.

Isistius brasiliensis, a spinacid shark, captured in Australian seas, was placed in an aquarium and remained aglow for about three hours. Bennett, F. D. 1840.1.

Spinax niger in a darkened room at the Naples aquarium, glowed "with a feebly shining greenish lustre." Note by Th. Beer "Spectral colors" in Johann, L. 1899.1. of Spinax at Naples, visible even in daylight. Burckhardt, C. R. 1900.2.

PHOSPHORESCENT ORGANS Photophores or radiating organs The nature of these organs was originally disputed and they were termed

Various general papers. Brauer, A. 1904.4, 1905.1; Chun, C. 1893.1; Guerne, J. 1880.1; Usov, M. M. 1879.1, 1880.1. Structure of the phosphorescent organs in -Lamprotoxus. Boulenger, C. L. 1913.1. – Argyropelecus. Brandes, G. 1899.1; Handrick, K. 1901.1. - Chauliodus. Brandes, G. 1899.1; Lereboullet, D. A. 1864.4; Leydig, F. 1879.2; Leuckart, R. 1865.1, 1866.1. - Anomalops. Dahlgren, U. 1908.1. Anomalops and Photoblepharon. Steche, O. 1907.1, 1909.1; Weber, M. 1901.2, 1913.1. Porichthys. Eigenmann, C. H. & Eigenmann, R. S. 1889.7; ★Greene, C. W. 1899.1. Scopelus. Emery, C. 1884.1, 1888.1, 1890.1. - Maurolicus. Groot, G. J. 1908.1. Ipnops. Moseley, H. N. 1887.1.

Myctophide and Sternoptychida. Ohshima, H. 1910.1, 1911.1. Gonostoma (young). Sanzo, L. 1912.1. Cyclothone. ★Trojan, E. 1915.1. Heterophthalmus. Vorderman, A. G. 1900.1.

PHOSPHORESCENCE OF DEAD FISH

This phosphorescence, appearing in both marine and fresh-water fish, meat, vegetable matter, etc., is caused by photogenic bacteria, especially Bacterium phosphoreum. (Cohn.)

For a full discussion of the subject, see Mangold, E. Add. 1910.1. See also Barnard, J. E. in Jenner Instit. Prev. Med., 2nd ser. Aug. 1899, pp. 81-112.

Various papers, chiefly speculations on the causes of the phosphorescence. (True nature not recognized before Pflüger's suggestion.) Matteucci, C. 1848.1; Pflüger,

General papers on the metameric structure of the animal body. Ahlborn, C. G. 1884.2; Gaskell, W. H. 1898.1 (xi.); Hatschek, B. 1892.1,.2; Schultze, O. 1896.1.

Metamerism of the embryonic central nervous system. Barbieri, C. 1909.1; ★Hawkes, O. A. 1905.2; Locy, W. A. 1894.1; McClure, C. F. 1897.1; Neal, H. V. (Squalus) 1896.1; Waters, B. H. 1891.1, 1892.1; Henneguy, L. F. Add. 1888.1.

Metamerism of the cranial nerves. Beard, J. 1885.2; Herrick, C. J. 1899.2; Ihering, H. 1878.1; Mitrofanov, P. I. 1892.2; Nicholls, G. E. 1915.1; Shore, T. W. 1889.1; Marshall, A. M. Add. 1882.1.

Metameric motor nerve plexuses. Braus, H. 1909.1; Goodrich, E. S. 1910.1.

Seg

Metamerism in the sympathetic nervous system. Rynberk, G. A. 1906.2. mental innervation of skin by sympathetic nervous system. Rynberk, G. A. 1905.1, 1907.1. Metameric structure of mesoderm and entoderm. Petromyzon. Hatta, S. 1901.2. - Head mesoderm, Amphioxus. Hatschek, B. 1906.1-1910.1. Head mesoderm, Cyclostomes. Neal, H. V. 1915.3. -Entoderm and circulatory system of the trunk. Houssay, F. 1891.1.

Metameric structure of the skin. - Selachii. Grosser, O. 1905.1; Rynberk, G. A. 1905.3, 1908.1.

Metamerism of the longitudinal muscles. Harrison, R. G. Add. 1894.1.

MIGRATIONS OF FISHES

Some of the anadromous fishes, i. e. those which spend the greater part of their life in the sea, such as the salmon, run up for several thousand miles, to the headwaters of rivers, in search of a suitable place to spawn. Others which grow to maturity in the fresh-water streams or lakes (catadromous fishes), like the eel, perform a migration of no lesser distance from the rivers of Europe and North America to depths off the West Indies, travelling also for the purpose of reproduction. Other marine fishes annually move northward and southward in pursuit of their food. Thus the subject of migrations is intimately related to that of their breeding and feeding habits and their life-histories, and cannot, in the case of Anguilla, Pleuronectidæ, and Salmonidæ, be readily treated separately. References to the migration of these fishes will therefore be found under the sections, Anguilla, Pleuronectidæ, and Salmonidæ, respectively.

The most recent and comprehensive work (in English) on Migrations of Fishes " is Meek, A. 1916.1.

The various workers of the regional Fisheries Bureaus of the International Commission for the Investigation of the Sea have made the most detailed records and observations of the migrations of the principal North-Atlantic food fishes. Their papers have largely been published in the publications of the Commission, especially Rapports et Procés-Verbaux, and also Publications de Circonstance of the Conseil Permanent International pour l'Exploration de la Mer, Copenhagen; and Meddelelser fra Kommissionen for Havundersögelser, Serie Fiskeri,

Copenhagen; and Wissenschaftliche Meeresun tersuchungen der deutschen Meere in Kiel und der Biologischen Anstalt auf Helgoland.

Other older, general treatises are: Berthelot, S. 1875.1; Goode, G. B. 1878.4; Homeyer, E. F. 1881.1; Roule, L. 1914.2; Serres, P. M. 1842.1; Woltereck, R. 1908.1.

Influences of currents, weather conditions, vulcanism, etc., on migrations. Armistead, J. J. 1894.1, Add. 1888.1; Krebs, W. 1911.2, 1912.1; Masterman, A. T. 1897.3; Nordgaard, O. 1910.1; WillisBund, J. W. 1887.1.

To define migrations which are intimately associated with currents, the terms contranatant and denatant are proposed by Meek, A. 1915.2.

Herring (Clupea harengus). Baird, S. F. 1878.5; Baženov, A. 1906.2; Broch, H. 1908.1,.2; Cligny, A. 1912.9, Add. 1907.1, 1914.1; Gilpin, J. 1786.1; Golynetz, W. 1907.1; Hinkelmann, A. 1902.1; Krebs, W. 1911.1; Kuznetzov, I. D. 1894.1; Lindahl, J. 1878.1; Mitchell, J. M. 1861.1; Morrison, W. D. 1829.1; Noël de la Morinière, S. 1795.1; Pearcey, F. G. 1884.1; Schneider, J. G. 1788.2; Sim, G. 1883.2; Watt, W. 1883.3; Ziegler, A. 1857.1; Anon. 366; Rappolt, C. H. Pre-Linn. 1739.1.

Alewives.

Various other Clupeida. Bean, T. H. 1881.4. Pilchard. Bolitho, T. S. 1851.2; Cornish, T. 1883.3; Couch, R. Q. 1851.4. Anchovy. Cunningham, J. T. 1893.7. - Sprat. Eichelbaum, E. 1911.1. Menhaden. Grant, I. H. 1883.1. Clupeidae (herring excepted). Hoek, P. P. 1912.1. Shad. Smith, C. J. 1880.2.

Migrations- Cont'd.

Migrations of the mackerel. ★Allen, E. J. 1897.3, 1909.1; B., G. A. 1878.1; Badenoch, L. N. 1903.1; Cligny, A. 1905.2; Collins, J. W. 1883.5, 1884.2; Dunn, M. 1893.1; Garstang, W. 1897.3, 1898.1; Martin, S. J. 1883.2,.3,.4; Morrison, W. D. 1829.1; Tanner, Z. L. 1883.1.

Migrations of the tunny (Thynnus). Bounhiol, J. P. 1911.1,.2,.3; Niewenglowski, G. H. 1913.1; Pavesi, P. 1887.1; Strabo, Roule, L. 1913.6; Pre-Linn. 1472.1.

Migrations of other Teleostean fishes. - Bluefish (Pomatomus). Baird, S. F. 1871.39. Cottus. Forsberg, A. 1898.1. Crappie (Pomorys). C., S. W. 1878.1. - Galaxias, migration from sea to fresh water. McCulloch, A. R. 1915.1. Mugil. Gummerus, A. 1898.1; Roule, L. 1915.1,.3. Trigla. Fulton, T. W. 1899.1; Meek, A. 1915.4. Whitefish. C. 1878.1; Tomlin, W. D. 1888.1.

Marking experiments

For the determination of the rate of growth, the rate of travel during migrations, and other facts concerning their life histories, various experiments or attempts in marking fishes have been made, chiefly by the use of metal disks, by the removal of parts of fins, or by other recognizable mutilations. Some references to these attempts will be found under Anguilla, Pleuronectidæ, and Salmonidæ.

Other papers relating to the marking of North Sea fishes are Fulton, T. W. 1904.2; Garstang, W. 1905.5, 1912.1; Herdman, W. A., Scott, A. & Johnstone, J. 1905.11909.1.

Marking experiments on the cod (Gadus) in the North Sea. Borley, J. O. 1909.1. - in Icelandic waters. Sæmundsson, B. 1913.1; Schmidt, E. J. 1907.1. Tagging adult cod at Woods Hole, Mass. Smith, H. M. 1902.10. - German experiments. Redeke, H. C. 1909.1; Weigold, H. 1913.1.

Miscellaneous papers on migrations

Text in English. Aflalo, F. G. 1902.5; Agassiz, J. L. 1858.2; Anderson, J. 1800.1; Epton, J. 1883.1; Gould, N. E. 1885.1; Klippart, J. H. 1876.1; Lyman, T. 1868.2; Lyman, T. & Field, A. R. 1867.1; McDonald, M. 1885.2; Milner, J. W. 1880.1,.2; Norris, T. 1873.1; Thomson, J. H. 1878.2; Kirby, W. Add. 1835.1.

Text in French. Baude, J. J. 1861.1; Belloc, E. 1903.1; Duméril, A. H. 1866.3; Nillson, S. 1860.2; Rafinesque-Schmaltz, C. 1814.3; Watterbled, Add. 1882.1. Text in German. Buxbaum, L. 1892.1; Ehrenbaum, E. 1911.7; Franz, V. 1910.7, .10, 1911.2; Heincke, F. 1880.2; Jaeger,

1911.1; La Valette St. George, A. 1901.1; Leonhardt, E. E. 1903.6; Müllenhoff, K. 1885.1; Römer, F. 1909.1; Schiemenz, P. 1904.2.

Text in Norwegian.

H. 1909.1.

Text in Russian. 1908.1.

Huitsfeldt-Kaas,

Gracianov, V. I.

PHYSICAL CAUSES OF MORTALITY

For instances of death caused by excessive cold and heat, see under Temperature, effects. Earthquakes destroying fishes. At Catania, Sicily, in 1908. Condorelli-Fr., M. 1909.1. - Deep-sea fishes killed in the western Riviera, Italy. Giglioli, E. H. 1887.1; Bellotti, C. Add. 1887.1. Fishes destroyed by eruption of Mt. Vesuvius. Lo Bianco, S. 1907.1.

Hurricanes and monsoons, causing destruction. Monsoon of coast of India. Denison, W. 1862.1. Destruction through hurricane of Jan., 1839, in Ireland. Thompson, W. 1838.2. - Hurricane at Scilly Is. Anon. 236.

Lightning and thunder. Thunder storms causing mortality. Knauthe, K. 1901.1,.2; Nicklès, F. J. 1868.1; Sendler, A. 1902.1. - Fishes killed by lightning in Brenet See, Switzerland. Zur Mühlen, M. 1911.3. Disappearance of fishes during electrical storms. Coles, R. J. Add. 1914.1. MORTALITY IN VARIOUS LOCALITIES

Records of occurrence of extensive mortality at- Manila, 1767. Gentil, W. 1781.1. South Africa. Gilchrist, J. D. 1905.1. Malabar coast. Jouan, H. 1875.1. On coast of Sumatra. Marsden, W. Add. 1781.1. National Park Dam, New South Wales, 1888. Ogilby, J. D. Add. 1888.5.

America. Canada. - Bay of Fundy. Adams, A. L. 1868.1. Near Cape Hatteras (codfish). Leslie, C. C. 1883.1.

South America. - Callao, Peru. Alleged cause; Hydrogen-sulphide. Burtt, J. L. 1852.1; Hutchinson, T. J. Add. 1873.1.

In Rio de la Plata. Lahille, F. Add. 1912.1.

United States. - Blue gills (Lepomis pallidus) in Indiana. Large, T. 1897.1. Salmon in McCloud R., Cal., 1881. Stone, L. 1882.1. Minnesota. Washburn, F. L. 1886.1. Rhode Island. Knowles, H. M. 1887.1. Wisconsin, Racine R. Hoy, P. R. 1872.1. - Epidemic in Lake Mendota, Wis., 1884. Dunning, P. 1884.1; Forbes, S. A. 1890.1. · Haddock on Europe. British Isles. coasts of Northumberland, Durham and Yorkshire. Abbs, C. 1792:1.

- Between