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VII. The nasals, m, n, ng.

The nasals m and n are employed to express negation, being the natural sounds to express refusal; as, Sansc. má, Gr. un, lest; Sansc. na, Pers. neh, Gr. ve (in výnos,) Lat. ne (in non, nemo,) Germ. ne (in nicht, nein,) Eng. ne (in not, none,) Lithuan. ne, Russ. ne, İr. na, ni, Welsh na, ni, not.

The labial nasal m is one of the earliest sounds of infants, being formed by their practiced lips, and is used

1. To express the mother or nurse, on account of their objective importance to the child; as Heb. em, Eng. ma, etc. mother; Germ. amme, nurse.

2. To express the pronoun of the first person, on account of its subjective importance to every one; as, Sansc. mam, Gr. μ¿, Lat. me, Eng. me, etc.

3. To express one of the most important mental operations; as, Sansc. man, Gr. unvvw, Lat. moneo, memini, Germ. mahnen, meinen, Eng. mean, (comp. Lat. mens, Eng. mind.)

The lingual nasal n occurs in the name of the organ concerned; as, Lat. nasus, Eng. nose.

VIII. The dentals, s, sh, z, zh.

The name sibilants given to this class of letters sufficiently indicates their import; comp. Lat. sibilo.

Ss final denotes sharp sounds; as, Eng. hiss, siss, whisper, whistle.

Z final denotes sounds less sharp; as Eng. whiz, buzz.

Sh final denotes silence; as hush; also sounds or sights which break off suddenly; as Eng. clash, crash, flask, splash. Sh, initial expresses aversion; as Germ. scheu, Eng. shy; Eng, pshaw; shogh.

IX. The palatal mutes, c or k, g, kh, gh.

The import of the palatals is the least definite. Yet the atonic k is justly supposed to have a natural appropriateness to perform the function of an interrogative; as, Sansc. kas, Gr. xos (whence xoreoos,) Lat. quis, Meso-Goth. hwas, Lithuan. kas, Russ. koi, Gael. co, who? A palatal is also found in words denoting hollowness and holding; as, Gr. xolos, (whence Lat. coelum ;) Lat. cavus, capio.

X. The lingual mutes, t, d, th, dh.

1. The lingual, whether atonic or subtonic, has a natural adaptedness to perform the function of a demonstrative; as, Sansc. tat, it, tataras, one of two ; Gr. τό, τοῦτο, τόσος, τοῖος, etc.; Lat. tantus, tot, talis, etc.; Lithuan. tas, ta, to, that; Goth. thata, that; Germ. der, die, das, this; Eng. that, this,

etc.

2. The lingual is also found in three families of words, very extensively diffused through the Indo-European languages, each of which has the general import of pointing or demonstrating; as, (1) Sansc. tan, Gr. ravvw, reivw, Lat. teneo, tendo, Germ. dehnen, Russ. tianu, Eng. tend. (2) Sansc. dis', Gr. deizw, Lat. dico, doceo, Germ. zeigen, Irish teagasgaim, Eng. teach. (3) Sansc. da, Gr. dów, didosμi, Lat. do, Lithuan. dumi, Russ. daiu, to give.

XI. The labial mutes, p, b, ph, v.

1. The labials, from the ease with which they are enounced, have been employed to denote the first objects which interest the child; as, Sansc. pitar, Zend paitar, Pers. padar, Gr. márno, Lat. pater, Russ. batia, Germ. vater, Eng. father, Turk. peder; also Eng. papa.

2. They denote fullness or extension, from their swelling the cheeks; as, Gr. пdéos, niñons, Lat. pleo, plenus, Germ. füllen, voll, Eng. fill, full.

3. They also express aversion, from their puffing or blowing; as, Arab. uffu, Gr. peu, Lat. phy, Eng. fie, poh.

XII. The mixt consonants, tsh and dzh.

These consonants are introduced here for the sake of showing the difference between the physiological and the etymological development of sounds.

Tsh in English, (where it is expressed by ch,) is not an original sound, but has arisen, in the mutation of languages, from other sounds; as, chaff from Anglo-Sax. ceaf; chalice from Lat. calix; change from Fr. changer; cheek from Anglo-Sax. ceac; cherry from Lat. cerasus; cherish from Fr. cherir; child from Anglo-Sax. cild; chief from Fr. chef; chimney from Lat. caminus; choose from Anglo-Sax. ceosan; chuck from Fr. cho

quer; church from Anglo-Sax. circ. So tsh in Italian, (where it is expressed by c before e and i,) has arisen from the Latin c; as, Cicero, (pronounced tshitshero,) from Lat. Cicero, (pron. kikero.) Hence we have no occasion to investigate the import of tsh in modern languages. Its meaning, as an original sound in ancient Sanscrit, lies too remote for our present purpose. Dzh in English, so far as it is expressed by g, is derived from Lat. g? which had a hard sound; and so far as it is expressed by j, is derived from Lat. j, and ultimately from Sansc. y. Hence all inquiry as to the import of our modern dzh is superseded.

XIII. Consonants in combination.

We shall perceive the natural force of the letters to better advantage by taking some of them in combination.

Bl and fl denote blowing, blooming, and flowing; as, Lat. flo, Germ. blähen, blasen, Eng. blow, blaze, blast, bluster, blister, bladder; Gr. glóos, Lat. flos, floreo, Germ. blühen, blüthe, blume, Eng. flower, flourish, bloom, blossom; Gr. qléo, phiw, phuw, Lat. fluo, Germ. fliessen, fluth, Eng. flow, flood; Lat. fleo, to weep.

Cl or kl denotes cleaving or adhering; as, Eng. cleave, clay, (adhesive earth,) cling, clinch, clutch, climb, (whence clamber,) clot, (whence clod,) clasp.

Cr or kr, see the force of the letter r above.

Gl denotes smoothness or silent motion; as, Eng. glib, glide. Gn, jn or kn denotes a sudden breaking off; as, Sansc. janus, Cr. yový, Lat. genu, Germ. knie, Eng. knee; Lat. janua, (a break in a wall).

Gr, see the force of the letter r above.

Kn, see gn above.

Shw and sw denote gentle motion (comp. the force of the letter w above); as, Germ. schwellen, schwimmen, schwingen; Eng. sway, swagger, sweep, swerve, swell, swine, swing.

Sl denotes smoothness or silent motion; as, slide, slip, slime, sleight, sly.

Sn denotes ideas relating to the nose; (comp. the force of the letter n above ;) as, Eng. snarl, sneer, sneeze, snicker, snivel, snore, snort, snout, snuff, snuffle.

Spr denotes a spreading out; as, Eng. spread, sprain, sprawl, spring, sprinkle.

St denotes firmness or stability; as, Eng. stable, staff, stake, stalk, stall, stand, stay, steady, stem, stick, stiff, stock, stout, stub, stubble, stubborn, stump, sturdy.

Str seems to denote exertion; as, Eng. strain, strenuous, stress, strike (whence stroke, streak), strip (whence strap, stripe), strive (whence strife), string, strong (whence strength), strict, strait, straight, stretch, struggle.

Thr denotes violent motion; as Eng. throw, thrust, throng, throb.

Tw is found in a large class of English words connected with the number two.

Wr evidently denotes distorted motion, (comp. the force of the letter r above); as, Eng. wrap, wreck (whence wrack), wrest (whence wrist, wrestle), wrig (whence wriggle), wring (whence wrong, wrangle, wrench), wrinkle, writhe (whence wreath, writhle, wry).

We forbear to add more, hoping that what we have said will be sufficient to support our position, that language is not entirely arbitrary or conventional, but on the contrary articulate sounds have a natural adaptedness to express specific ideas.

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ARTICLE IX.

THE CONDITION AND BELIEF OF THE JEWS AT THE TIME of the coming of Christ.

An interesting chapter from Jost's General History of the Israelites, in which he depicts the moral condition of the Jews at the period of the Christian era, and describes the origin and peculiar character of the Christian community. Book VIII. chap. 6, Vol. II. p. 60-68.

Translated from the German by Rev. James Murdock, D. D. New Haven, Conn.

HEROD the Great tore in pieces all the frame-work of society, and gave it a new construction. Under him, the people so visibly lost their national peculiarities, that they seemed ready to become extinct. Trodden down and oppressed by a tyrannical government, they turned their anxious eyes towards the holy

Scriptures and their law, for comfort and consolation. They acknowledged themselves justly punished for their backsliding; and although the sanctuary and the sacrifices continued, yet every one could see,.that a high-priesthood, which the king conferred on whom he pleased, and of whose incumbents he had deposed four and slain two, and a sanctuary which the king beautified merely as a permanent temple, the sanctity of which he was no way concerned to maintain,-could by no means satisfy the requisitions of God's government, and of the Judaism resulting from it. Besides, the national tribunals were disregarded, and the king alone enacted laws and appointed tribunals, on every occasion, according to his pleasure. The people had no protector, and they were harassed with acts of individual violence; some were carried away by ambition, others by selfinterest; some acted from compulsion, others from bigotry and hypocrisy. What would be the result of such a state of things, was a question which interested every friend of the public weal; and it was answered variously. One party adhered to the doctrine of Judaism, and looked for deliverance by a regent of the house of David; another party were for waging war with every thing of a foreign character; and a third party declared the kingdom of God to be at hand, in the way of a general repentance and reformation.

I. The first party connected themselves with the doctors of the law, and adhered to their schools. At the head of these schools, during the whole reign of Herod, stood two men entirely disconnected with political life, who devoted their time to the study and exposition of the doctrines of the law; namely, HILLEL of Babylonia, renowned for the mildness of his disposition, his kindness and calmness, and SHAMMAI, a man bold, vehement, and decisive. Both were distinguished for learning, and both framed systems of Judaism, though they frequently clashed in regard to their legal conclusions on particular points. And hence their schools were afterwards opposed to each other, and were characterized, that of Hillel for adhering more to the sense and import of Scripture, and that of Shammai for a rigid adherence to the letter. Both these men mingled so little in the transactions of their times, that they became mythical personages. Only some particular sayings, characteristic of each, have come down to us. Thus Hillel inculcated, as the fundamental principle of Judaism, this maxim: Love thy neighbor as thyself. On the necessity of the early prosecution of know

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