sound of a clock, points out all the exercises of the day in a uniform manner, and the simplicity and frugality of their way of living, which are very different from the indulgence of their fathers' houses, and serve only to render them too nice and tender. My father," says Henry de Mesmes, "had two views in the education of the college; the one was the gay and innocent conversation of the boys, the other was the school discipline, to make us forget the endearments of our home, and, as it were, to cleanse us in fresh water. I think those eighteen months I spent at the college were of great service to me. . . . . I learnt the frugal life of the scholars, and how to portion out my time."

Another advantage of colleges, supposing them to be such as they should be, and the greatest of all is, that the boys are there thoroughly taught their religion. They learn to take the knowledge of it from the spring, to know the real spirit and true greatness of it, and to fortify themselves by solid principles against the dangers which faith and piety too frequently meet with in the world. It is not impossible, but certainly 'tis very rare, to find this advantage in private houses.

Now, what must we conclude from all these principles and all these facts? There is no college which cannot produce a great number of examples of boys who have had an excellent education there, and been improved both in the sciences and in piety; nor is there any one which has not seen with grief a great number miscarry; and the case is the same in private houses.

The conclusion which, in my opinion, we should draw from hence is, that the dangers are very great to youth on all sides. It is the duty of parents to examine well before God what course they ought to take, equitably to weigh the advantages and inconveniences which occur on both sides, to be determined in so important a deliberation only by the motives of religion, and above all, to make such a choice of masters and colleges, in case they follow that course, as may, if not entirely dissipate, at least diminish, their just apprehensions.

The Plan and Division of this Treatise.

To enter usefully into the particulars of what concerns the private government of the classes and colleges, it is necessary to consider separately the duty of the different persons who are employed in the educa tion of youth and bear any relation to it. But as there are some general directions which almost equally belong to all, I will begin this treatise with them, that I may avoid the repetitions which otherwise would be inevitable.

I. GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

I shall begin with desiring the reader, when I talk of instructions, rules, precepts, and duties, which are terms that I cannot avoid employing in the subject I treat of, to do me so much justice as to think that I do not pretend to prescribe laws to any one, or to set up for a master or censurer of my brethren. My only design is to assist, if I can, such young persons as are intrusted with the education of children who, for

want of experience, are subject to commit a great many errors, as I own that I myself have formerly committed, and I shall think myself very happy if I can contribute to make them avoid them by laying my reflections before them, or rather those of the ablest masters in point of education. For I shall here scarce say anything of myself, especially in this first part, which is the most important, and should serve as the basis and foundation to all the rest. Athens and Rome shall here lend me their assistance. I shall likewise make use of two modern authors, and often without quoting them. These are M. de Fénelon, Archbishop of Cambray, and Mr. Locke, whose writings upon this subject are justly very much esteemed. The last has some particular sentiments which I would not always follow. Besides, I question whether he was well skilled in the Greek tongue, and in the study of the belles lettres; at least he seems not to set the value upon them they deserve. But both of them may be of very great use with relation to morals and conduct, not only to young masters, but to persons of greater experience. I have taken the liberty of making use of the labors of others, as I have thought fit, and I am inclined to think that the public will not be displeased at it, being content to have good things laid before them without being concerned from whence they are taken. I shall reduce to twelve or thirteen articles the general instructions which relate to the education of youth.

1. THE END TO BE AIMED AT IN EDUCATION.

To succeed in the education of youth, the first step is to lay down the end we should aim at, to inquire by what means it is to be obtained, and to choose out an able and experienced guide, who is able to conduct us safely to it. Though it be generally a very wise and judicious rule* to avoid all singularity, and to follow the received customs, yet I question whether, in the point we now treat of, this principle does not admit of some exception, and whether we ought not to apprehend the dangers and inconveniencies of blindly following the footsteps of those who have gone before us, so as to consult custom more than reason, and the governing our actions rather by what others do than by what they should do; from whence it often happens that an error once established is handed down from age to age, and becomes almost a certain law, from a notion that we ought to act like the rest of mankind, and follow the example of the greater number. But the greatest number do not always make the best choice, and we too frequently observe the contrary.

If we consult our reason ever so little, it is easy to discern that the end which masters should have in view, is not barely to teach their scholars Greek and Latin, to learn them to make exercises and verses, to charge their memory with facts and historical dates, to draw up syllogisms in form, or to trace lines or figures upon paper. These branches of knowledge I own are useful and valuable, but as means and not as the end, when they conduct us to other things, and not when we stop there; when they serve us as preparatives and instruments for better matters, the ignorance of which makes all the rest useless. The boys

Senec. lib. de vit. Beat. caps. 1, 2.

+ Senec. Epist. 88.

would have cause to complain, if they were condemned to spend eight or ten of the best years of their life in learning, at a great expense and with incredible pains, one or two languages, and some other matters of a like nature, which, perhaps, they would but seldom have occasion to make use of. The end of masters, in the long course of their studies, is to habituate their scholars to a serious labor, to make them love and value the sciences, and to raise such an appetite in them as shall make them thirst after them when they are gone from school, to point out the method of attaining to them, and make them thoroughly sensible of their use and value, and by that means to dispose them for the different employments to which it shall please God to call them. Besides this, it is farther the end of masters to improve their hearts and understandings, to protect their innocence, to inspire them with principles of honor and probity, to train them up to good habits, to correct and subdue in them, by gentle means, the ill inclinations they shall be observed to have, such as roughness, insolence, an high opinion of themselves, and a proudswelling vanity constantly employed in lessening others, a blind selflove, which is only careful of procuring advantage to itself, a spirit of raillery which is pleased with offending and insulting others, an insolence and sloth, which renders all the good qualities of the mind unserviceable.*

2. TO STUDY THE CHARACTER OF THE CHILDREN.

Education, properly speaking, is the art of developing and fashioning the mind. Of all sciences it is the most difficult, the most novel, and, at the same time, the most important, but yet not sufficiently studied. To judge by common experience, of all the animals man is the most untractable. Xenophon, in the beautiful preface to his Cyropedia, observes, "We never see flocks of sheep or oxen rebel against their leaders, whereas nothing is more common amongst men; it seems a natural conclusion that it is more difficult to rule over men than over beasts." But, casting his eyes upon Cyrus, who governed so many provinces in peace, and was equally beloved by the people he had conquered and his natural subjects, he concludes that "the fault must arise not from those who are unwilling to obey, but from the superiors who know not how to govern."

The same may be said, in some proportion, of those who are intrusted with the education of children. It must be owned that the mind of man, even in his infancy, bears the yoke with impatience, and naturally inclines to what is forbidden. But what we must conclude from hence is, that for this very reason he requires more precaution and address, and that he yields more willingly to mildness than violence (sequitur facilius quam ducitur). We sometimes see a stomachful horse who capers and gnaws the bit, and refuses to obey the spur; 'tis because the rider has a hard and heavy hand, knows not how to guide him, and checks the bridle when he ought not. Give this horse, who has a very tender mouth, an understanding and skilful rider, and he will check all his sallies, and,

*Senec. lib. de vit. beat. cap. 1.

+ Senec. de Clem, lib. 1, cap. 24.

with a light hand, govern him with pleasure (generosi atque nobiles equi melius facili fraeno reguntur).

To compass this end, the master's first care is thoroughly to study and search into the genius and character of the children, for by this he must regulate his conduct. There are some who are lazy and remiss, unless they are continually called upon, and others cannot bear to be imperi ously treated; some will be restrained by fear, and others, on the contrary, discouraged.* We can gain nothing out of some, but by mere labor and application; and others only will study by fits and starts. To endeavor to bring them all to a level, and make them submit to one and the same rule, is to attempt to force nature. The prudence of the master will consist in keeping a medium, which is equally removed from the two extremes; for here the ill so closely borders upon the good, that it is easy to mistake the one for the other, and 'tis this which renders the management of boys so difficult. Too much liberty leads to licentiousness, and too much constraint makes them stupid; commendation excites and encourages, but it also inspires vanity and presumption. We must, therefore, keep a just temper, and hold an even hand between these two inconveniencies, after the example of Isocrates in the case of Ephorus and Theopompus, who were of, a very different character. This great master, who was as successful in his instructions as his writings (as appears from his scholars and his books), making use of a bridle to give a check to the vivacity of the one, and a spur to awaken the sluggishness of the other, did not aim at reducing them both to the same standard.‡ His object in taking away from the one and adding to the other, was to carry each of them to that perfection which their natural capacity would admit of.

This model we must follow in the education of children. They carry within them the principles, and, in a manner, the seeds of all virtues and vices; and the principal point is thoroughly to study at first their genius and character, to become acquainted with their humor, their disposition and talents, and, above all, to discover their passions and prevailing inclinations, not with a view or expectation of entirely changing their temper,-of making him gay, for instance, who is naturally grave, or him serious who is of a lively and cheerful disposition. It is with certain characters as with personal defects; they may be somewhat redressed, but not absolutely cured. Now the way of growing thus acquainted with the children is to give them a great liberty to discover their inclinations whilst young, to let them follow their natural bent in order to discern it the better, to comply with their little infirmities to encourage them to let us see them, to observe them whilst they think little of it, especially at their play, when they show their tempers most; for children are naturally plain and without reserve, but as soon as they think themselves taken notice of, they throw themselves under a restraint, and keep upon their guard.

Quintil. lib. 1, cap. 3.

+ Senec, de Ira, lib. 2, cap. 21.

+ Quintil. lib. 2, cap. 8; Cic. lib. 3, de Orat. n. 36.

It is of great moment also to distinguish the nature of their faults. In general, we may hope that those wherein age, bad education, ignorance, and being seduced, and ill-example have any share, are not without remedy; and, on the other hand, we may believe that such are naturally rooted in the mind and in the corruption of the heart, will be very difficult to be got over, such as double-dealing and hypocrisy, flattery, an inclination to tell stories, to sow divisions, to envy and detraction, a disposition to scoff, and especially at the instructions that are given them, and at things sacred, a natural opposition to reason and what is a consequence of it, a readiness to take things otherwise than they are meant.*

3. TO SECURE AUTHORITY OVER THE CHILDREN.

By authority, I mean a certain air and ascendant which inspires respect and procures obedience. 'Tis neither age nor height, the tone of the voice of threatening, by which this authority is to be obtained, but an equal disposition of mind firm and moderate, which is always master of itself, is guided only by reason, and never acts by fancy or passion.

It is this qualification and talent which keeps all in order, establishes an exact discipline, sees that orders are observed, saves the trouble of reprimands, and prevents almost all punishments. Now it is from the very first entrance upon their government that parents and masters should take this power upon themselves. If they do not seize upon this favorable moment, and place themselves early in this authority, they will have all the pains in the world to do it afterwards, and the child will domineer at last. There is, deep rooted in the heart of man, a love. of independence, which discloses itself from our childhood, or even at the breast. What mean those cries, those tears, the threatening gesture, and the eyes sparkling with rage, in an infant who is resolved to gain his point with all his force, or is raised to jealousy against another? "I have seen," says St. Augustine, "a child burning with jealousy. He could not yet talk, but with a pale countenance could cast a furious look at another child who was sucking with him at the same breast." f

Here we have the time and moment pointed out for subduing this bad inclination in a child, by inuring him, from the cradle, to get the better over his desires, not to pursue his own fancies; but, in a word, to yield and obey. If we never gave children what they cried for, they would learn to go without it, nor would there be so much bawling and uneasiness before they were brought to temper, and consequently they would not be so troublesome to themselves or others as they are.

I do not mean absolutely to disallow every indulgence to children. I am very far from such a disposition. I say only, we must not give them what they cry for; and if they redouble their importunity to obtain it, we must let them know that they are expressly refused it for that very reason; and this must be held as an indisputable maxim, that, after they have once been refused anything, we must resolve never to grant it to their crying or importuning, unless we would teach them to become im

*Lettres de pietè, tom. 1.

+ S. August. Conf. lib. 1, cap. 7.