requires two and a half times its weight of crystallised subcarbonate of soda for saturation, whence M. Thenard regards it as a compound of eleven of water, and eighty-nine of real acid in 100 parts. Combined with water, in the proportion of 100 to 112-2, it does not change its density, but it then remains liquid several degrees below the freezing point of water. By diluting it with a smaller quantity of water, its specific gravity augments, a circumstance peculiar to this acid. It is 1-079, or at its maximum, when the water forms one-third of the weight of the acid.-Ann. de Chimie, tom. 66.

The following table is given by Messrs. Taylor, as the basis of their acetometer :

Revenue proof acid, called by the manufacturer No. 24.

sp. gr. 1.0085 contains real acid in 100, 5

An acetic acid of very considerable strength may also be prepared by saturating perfectly dry charcoal with common vinegar, and then distilling. The water easily comes off and is separated at first; but a stronger heat is required to expel the acid. Or by exposing vinegar to very cold air, or to freezing mixtures, its water separates in the state of ice, the interstices of which are occupied by a strong acetic acid, which may be procured by draining. The acetic acid, or radical vinegar of the apothecaries, in which they dissolve a little camphor or fragrant essential oil, has a specific gravity of about 1.070. It contains fully one part of water to two of the crystallised acid. The pungent smelling salt consists of sulphate of potash moistened with that acid. Acetic acid acts on tin, iron, zinc, copper, and nickel; and it combines readily with the oxides of many other metals, by mixing a solution of their sulphates with that of an acetate of lead.

This acid, as it exists in the acetates of barytes and of lead, has been analysed by MM. Gay Lussac and Thenard, and also by Berzelius.

Gay Lussac found 50-224 carbon, 5-629 hydrogen, and 44-147 oxygen; or in other terms 50-224 carbon, 46 911 of water or its elementary constituents, and 2-863 oxygen in excess. Berzelius,46-83 carbon, 6:33 hydrogen, and 46.82 oxygen in 100 parts.

By saturating known weights of bases with acetic acid, and ascertaining the quantity of acetates obtained after cautious evaporation to dryness, Berzelius obtained with lime (3:56) 6.5 for the prime equivalent of acetic acid, and with yellow oxide of lead 6432. Recent researches, which will be published in a detailed form, induce me to fix the prime of acetic acid at 7·0.

Acetic acid dissolves resins, gum resins, cam phor, and essential oils. Its odor is employed in medicine to relieve nervous headache, fainting fits, or sickness occasioned by crowded rooms. In a slightly dilute state, its application has been found to check hemorrhagy from the nostrils. Its anticontagious powers are now little trusted to. It is very largely used in calico printing. Moderately rectified pyrolignous acid has been recommended for the preservation of animal food; but the empyreumatic taint it communicates to bodies im

mersed in it is not quite removed by their subse quent ebullition in water.

Acetic acid and common vinegar are sometimes fraudulently mixed with sulphuric acid to give them strength. This adulteration may be detected by the addition of a little chalk, short of their saturation. With pure vinegar the calcareous base forms a limpid solution, but with sulphuric acid a white insoluble gypsum. Muriate of barytes is a still nicer test. British fermented vinegars are allowed by law to contain a little sulphuric acid, but the quantity is frequently exceeded. Copper is discovered in vinegars by supersaturating them with ammonia, when a fine blue color is produced; and lead by sulphate of soda, hydrosulphurets, and sulphuretted hydrogen. None of these should produce any change on genuine vinegar.

Acetic acid dissolves deutoxide of barium without effervescence. By precipitating the barytes with sulphuric acid, there remains an oxygenised acid, which, being saturated with potash, and heated, allows a great quantity of oxygen gas to escape. There is disgengaged at the same time a notable quantity of carbonic acid gas. This shows that the oxygen, when assisted by heat, unites in part with the carbon, and doubtless likewise with the hydrogen of the acid. It is in fact acetic deutoxide of hydrogen.

Salts consisting of the several bases, united in definite proportions to acetic acid, are called acetates. They are characterised by the pungent smell of vinegar, which they exhale on the effusion of sulphuric acid; and by their yielding on distillation in a moderate red heat a very light, odorous, and combustible liquid called pyro-acetic spirit. They are all soluble in water; many of them so much so as to be uncrystallisable. About thirty different acetates have been formed, of which only a very few have been applied to the uses of life.

The acetic acid unites with all the alkalies and most of the earths, and with these bases it forms compounds, some of which are crystallisable. The salts it forms are distinguished by their great solubility: their decomposition by fire, which carbonises them; the spontaneous alteration of their solution; and their decomposition by a great number of acids, which extricate from them the acetic acid in a concentrated state. It unites likewise with most of the metallic oxides.

With barytes, the saline mass, by spontaneous evaporation, crystallises in fine transparent prismatic needles, of a bitterish acid taste, which do not deliquesce when exposed to the air, but rather effloresce.

With potash this acid unites, and forms a deliquescent salt scarcely crystallisable, called formerly foliated earth of tartar, and regenerated tartar. The solution of this salt, even in closely stopped vessels, is spontaneously decomposed.

With soda it forms a crystallisable salt, which does not deliquesce.

The salt formed by dissolving chalk or other calcareous earth in distilled vinegar, has a sharp bitter taste, and appears in the form of silky crystals. The acetate of strontian has a sweet taste, is very soluble, and is easily decomposed by a strong heat.

The salt formed by uniting vinegar with ammonia, anciently called spirit of mindererus, is generally in a liquid state, and is commonly believed not to be crystallisable. It nevertheless may be reduced into the form of small needle-shaped crystals, when

this liquor is evaporated to the consistence of a syrup.

With magnesia the acetic acid forms a viscid saline mass, which does not shoot into crystals, but remains deliquescent, has a taste sweetish at first, and afterwards bitter, and is soluble in spirit of wine.

Glucine is readily dissolved by acetic acid. This solution, as Vauquelin informs us, does not crystallise; but is reduced by evaporation to a gummy substance, which slowly becomes dry and brittle; retaining a kind of ductility for a long time. It has a saccharine and pretty strongly astringent taste, in which that of vinegar however is distinguishable.

Yttria dissolves readily in acetic acid, and the solution yields by evaporation crystals of acetate of yttria. These have commonly the form of thick six-sided plates, and are not altered by exposure to the air.

Acetate of alumina is commonly made by adding gradually to a boiling solution of alum in water a solution of acetate of lead, till no further precipitate ensues. The sulphate of lead having subsided, decant the supernatant liquor, evaporate, and the acetate of alumina may be obtained in small needle-shaped crystals, having a strong styptic and acetous taste. This salt is of great use in dyeing and calico-printing.

Acetate of zircone may be formed by pouring acetic acid on newly precipitated zircone. It has an astringent taste. It does not crystallise; but, when evaporated to dryness, forms a powder, which does not attract moisture from the air. It very soluble both in water and alcohol; and is not so easily decomposed by heat as nitrate of zircone. M. Vauquelin has found that acetic acid may be combined with volatile oils.

is

Vinegar dissolves the true gums, and partly the gum resins, by means of digestion.

VINERY, in horticulture, a sort of garden erection generally consisting of a wall twelve or fourteen feet in height, extending from east to west, furnished with stoves and proper flues, with roof and lights of glass, covering a border of some extent, as ten feet or more in width. When vines are to be forced early, upright glasses, two and a half or three feet in height, are often employed in front to support the roof, and to admit sun and light to the border, which is frequently occupied with low-growing vegetables; but, when they are not wanted early, a low wall will answer equally well. In forcing vines, the following dimensions are supposed to form an improved vinery :-The wall twelve feet high, the breadth ten feet, and the height of the upright wall in front three feet, where the roof will form an angle of about forty-three degrees; which experience has shown to be a suitable pitch. These buildings may also be constructed on a plan somewhat similar to that of a singlepitted pine-stove, having the back wall fourteen feet high; the roof slanting, and covering an extent of about sixteen feet, with a flue running from east to west near the front wall. This is well suited, not only for grapes, but early crops of melons, strawberries, &c.

Where there are peach-houses, the glass frames may be employed for the vinery, when constructed with this intention, and good grapes may be obtained from vines trained against walls about six feet high, by means of melon-frame glasses, where a small slanting roof is made proper to receive them.

But a small degree of fire-heat is of great advantage, and might be applied either by a flued wall, the flue running through the house, or by cast-iron pipes for the purpose.

These sorts of houses, Mr. Nicol remarks, vary exceedingly in their construction; and, although some lay great stress on this article (and there are extremes which ought not to be followed), he is convinced the failure of success in the production of the grape is much less a consequence of bad construction in the house, than in the preparation of the border, the choice of the kinds, and the general management. It has fallen to his lot to have the construction and management of three several and differently constructed grape-houses in the same garden, under his care for years, which have equally and uniformly produced excellent crops. This, in his opinion, is a proof of the necessity of a greater niceness in the formation of the border being observed, than in the construction of the house; the fire-place and flues excepted, which should always be particularly attended to. He also thinks that the scite of a vinery is an object of such consequence to the welfare of the plant, and successful cultivation and production of well-flavoured fruit, that the greatest care should be taken in the choice of it. A gentle hill, having a south aspect, and considerable declivity that way, the soil a strong brown loam of two feet, over a bottom of dry sand, gravel, or soft clay, is, he thinks, the most desirable, and would be the least expensive of all situations. In this case the border requires no paving or draining; and admits of a proper mixture of sandy loam, vegetable mould, marle, and dung, by the removal of two feet of the natural bottom, with the natural soil, to form a border, perfectly adapted to the growth of the vine, in the following proportion, viz. one half strong brown loam, a quarter light sandy loam, an eighth vegetable mould of decayed tree-leaves, and an eighth stable-dung; to which add about a fiftieth part of shell-marle. This is the composition of the vineborders at Wemyss Castle, none of which are less than four feet deep, and one (owing to the accidental situation of the house) is six.

VIO (Thomas de). See CAJETAN.

VIOL, n. s. Fr. violle; Ital. viola. A stringed
VIOLIN'. Sinstrument of music: a fiddle.

Praise with timbrels, organs, flutes;
Praise with violins and lutes.

My tongue's use is to me no more
Than an unstringed viol, or a harp.

Sandys.

Shakspeare.

Loud o'er the rest Cremona's trump doth sound;
Me softer airs befit, and softer strings
Of lute or viol, still more apt for mournful things.

Sharp violins proclaim
Their jealous pangs and desperation,

For the fair disdainful dame.

Milton.

Dryden.

VIOLA, in botany, a genus of plants of the class syngenesia, order monogynia; in the natural system arranged under the twenty-ninth order, campanaceæ. The calyx is pentaphyllous; the corolla five petaled, irregular, with a nectarium behind, hornshaped; the capsule is above the germen, threevalved, monolocular. There are twenty-eight species; six of which are natives of Britain. The most important are, 1. V. odorata, purple sweet violet, has leaves heart-shaped, notched: the flowers deep purple, single; creeping scions. The flowers of this plant, taken in the quantity of a dram or two, are said to be gently purgative or laxative, and, ac

cording to Bergius and some others, they possess an anodyne and pectoral quality. 2. V. palustris, marsh violet. The leaves are smooth, reniform, two or three on each foot-stalk; flowers pale blue, small, inodorous. An infusion of the flowers is an excellent test of the presence of acids and alkalies. 3. V. tricolor, pansies, heart's-ease, or three faces under a hood. The stems are diffuse, procumbent, triangular; the leaves oblong, cut at the edges; stipulæ dentated; the flowers purple, yellow and light blue; inodorous.

VIOLATE, v. a. \ VIOLA'TION, n. s.

VIOLA'TOR,

VIOLENCE,

Latin violo. To injure; hurt; infringe; break in upon; ravage; ravish; deflour: the next two noun VIOLENT, adj. substantives follow these VIOLENTLY, adv. senses violence is, force; strength; force employed in outrage; attack; assault; injury; eagerness; vehemence: the adjective and adverb corresponding.

Those offences which are by their special qualities breaches of supernatural laws, do also, for that they are generally evil, violate in general that principle of reason, which willeth universally to fly from evil.

Hooker.

Kindness for man, and pity for his fate, May mix with bliss, and yet not violate.

Dryden.

We cannot, without offering violence to all records, divine and human, deny an universal deluge. Burnet. The posture we find them in, according to his doctrine, must be looked upon as unnatural and violent; and no violent state can be perpetual. Id.

May such places, built for divine worship, derive a blessing upon the head of the builders, as lasting as the curse that never fails to rest upon the sacrilegious violaters of them! South.

VIOLET, n. s. Fr. violette; Lat. viola. A flower.

When daisies pied, and violets blue,

instruments; and hence it is of all others the fittest for dancing. Yet there are ways of touching it which render it grave, soft, languishing, and fit for church or chamber music. It generally makes the treble or highest parts in concerts. Its harmony is from fifth to fifth. Its play is composed of bass, counter-tenor, tenor, and treble; to which may be added a fifth part; each part has four fifths, which rise to a greater seventeenth. See MUSIC.

VIOLONCELLO, of the Italians, is properly our fifth violin; which is a little bass violin, half the size of the common bass violin, and the strings bigger and longer in proportion; consequently its sound is an octave lower than our bass violin; which has a noble effect in concerts.

VIPER, n. s. I Lat. vipera. A serpent: havVIPEROUS, adj. § ing the qualities of a viper. A viper came out of the heat, and fastened on his Acts. hand.

He'll gall of asps with thirsty lip suck in ; The viper's deadly teeth shall pierce his skin. Sandys. We are peremptory to dispatch

This vip'rous traitor.

Some vip'rous critick may bereave Th' opinion of thy worth for some defect.

Shakspeare.

Daniel.

Viper-catchers have a remedy, in which they place such great confidence as to be no more afraid of the bite of a viper than of a common puncture. This is no other than axungia viperina, presently rubbed into the wound. Derham.

VIPER, in zoology. See CoLUBER, POISON, and SERPENT.

VIPER'S BUGLOSS, n. s. Lat. echium. A plant. Each flower is succeeded by four seeds, which are in form of a viper's head. Miller.

VIPER'S BUGLOSS. See ECHIUM.

VIPER'S GRASS.

VIRA'GO, n. s.

See SCORZONERA.

Lat. virago. A female warrior; qualities of a man; a brawling

Pope.

a woman with the or violent woman. Melpomene is represented like a virago, or manly lady, with a majestick and grave countenance. Peach. To arms! to arms! the fierce virago cries, And swift as lightning to the combat flies. VIRECTA, in botany, a genus of plants of the class pentandria, and order of monogynia. VIR'ELAY, n. s. Fr. virelay, virelai. A sort of little ancient French poem, consisting only of two rhymes and short verses with stops. Not used. The band of flutes began to play To which a lady sung a virelay: And still at every close she would repeat The burden of the song, The daisy is so sweet. Dryd. VI'RENT, adj. Lat. virens. Green; not faded. In these, yet fresh and virent, they carve out the Browne. figures of men and women.

VIRGE, n. s. Lat. virga; better VERGE, which see, from Fr. verge. A dean's mace. Suppose him now a dean compleat, Devoutly lolling in his seat; The silver virge, with decent pride, Stuck underneath his cushion side.

Swift.

VIRGIL, or PUBLIUS VIRGILIUS MARO, prince of the Latin poets, was born at Andes, near Mantua, about seventy years B.C. His first years were spent at Cremona, whence he removed to Rome, when his country was partitioned out among the soldiers after the battle of Philippi. There, by means of his friend Mæcenas, he was introduced to Augustus, who restored to him his estate. On this occasion he wrote his first Eclogue; and, on completing the Bucolics, he wrote the Georgics,

2 E

Richmond is the metropolis of the state. The other most considerable towns are Norfolk, Petersburg, Lynchburg, Fredericksburg, Winchester, Portsmouth, Williamsburg, Staunton, and Wheeling. The bank of Virginia was established at Richmond in 1804, with branches at Norfolk, Petersburg, Fredericksburg, and Lynchburg. The Farmers' Bank of Virginia was established in 1812, at Richmond, with branches at the same places, and at Winchester in addition. The western bank of Virginia was established in 1817, at Wheeling, with permission to establish branches at Wellsburg, Morgantown, and Clarksburg. The bank of the valley in Virginia was established in 1817, at

Winchester, with permission to establish a branch at some one of the counties of Jefferson, Berkley, Hampshire, or Hardy.

Four colleges have been established in this state; William and Mary College, at Williamsburg; Washington College, at Lexington; Hampden Sidney College, in Prince Edward county; and Central College, at Charlottesville. There are academies at Abingdon, Clarksburg, Danville, Lynchburg, New London, Martinsburg, Norfolk, Petersburg, Staunton, Winchester, Dinwiddie C. H., Gloucester C. H., near Halifax C. H., in Albermarle county, also Potomac Academy in Prince George county, Rappahannock Academy in Caroline county, and Rumford Academy in King William county. The literary fund of Virginia, which consists of moneys received from the United States, for military expenses during the late war, and fines, penalties, forfeitures, escheats, &c., amounted in stock and funds, December 10th, 1817, to 90,380,831 dollars; the interest of which, according to the president and directors, in their report to the general assembly, would be 61,534,49 dollars per annum. Of this sum 45,000 dollars are appropriated, by the act of the legislature, to the support of primary schools, and 15,000 dollars to the university which has been projected, and which, it is expected, will soon be established.

The denominations of Christians in Virginia, are Baptists, who according to the Baptist Report, in 1817, had 314 congregations; Presbyterians, who had in 1818, forty-one ordained ministers, and several licentiates: Episcopalians, who had in 1817 thirty-four ministers; Friends, who had in 1812 thirty-three meetings. There are also many Methodists, some Lutherans, Roman Catholics, Jews, &c. The legislature is composed of a senate and house of representatives. The senate consists of twentyfour members, chosen for four years, by districts, one-fourth being chosen every year. The representatives are chosen annually, two from each county, and one from several cities and boroughs. The governor is chosen annually by a joint ballot of both houses, and can hold the office but three years in seven. The principal rivers are the Potomac, Shenandoah, Rappahannock, Matapony, Pamunky, York, James, Rivanna, Appomatox, Elizabeth, Nottaway, Meherrin, Staunton, Kenhawa, Ohio, Sandy, Monongahela, and Cheat. The staple productions are wheat and tobacco. The exports of the state, for the year ending September 30th, 1817, amounted to 5,621,442 dollars; and the value of the manufactures, in 1810, was estimated at 15,263, 473 dollars.

The state of Virginia may be divided into four zones, essentially differing from one another. The first extending from the sea-coast to the termination of tide at Fredericksburg, Richmond, &c., is low and flat, sometimes fenny, sometimes sandy, and on the margin of rivers composed of a rich loam covered with a luxuriant and even rank vegetation. This part is unhealthy in the months of August, September, and October. The next division extends from the head of tide-water to the Blue Ridge. The surface near the tide-water is level; higher up the rivers it becomes swelling; and near the mountains it is often abrupt and broken. The soil is divided into sections of very unequal quality, parallel to each other, and extending throughout the state. The parallel of Chesterfield, Henrico, Hanover, &c., is a thin, sandy, and, except on the