character than that at present contemplated—a most improbable contingency—a little consideration and study of the factors in India and in England upon which great manufacturing developments are fundamentally based (several of these factors I have mentioned), should quickly remove all such apprehensions. A knowledge of present conditions in India makes it quite obvious that for a great many years to come the products of the West will be extensively needed in India just as the products of India will be widely needed by the outside world. To the changes which will very gradually be made in the character of those products, all sides will assist and contribute, and to the benefit and satisfaction of all.

I may conclude by briefly summarising the various considerations which I have passed in review. India has now definitely changed over from unqualified Free Trade to a policy of Discriminating Protection. This new tariff policy, however, be the scale of protective duties high or low, is unlikely to produce in the immediate future any very great change either in the volume or character of India's foreign trade, and for the reason that factors other than tariffs are the main determining causes of rapid and continuous industrial progress. If India's export trade is still below normal in spite of very good crop out-turns and ample surpluses for export, the explanation must be sought for not in any changes of tariffs in the last two or three years, but rather in the diminution of Europe's purchasing powers consequent upon exhaustion, loss of credit, and moral decadence brought about by the Great War. So long as these conditions continue, India's diminished sales abroad mean diminished supplies of purchasing power abroad wherewith to buy England's manufactures. Further, these conditions tend to stimulate the creation of factories in India to deal with some of these surplus raw products that Europe is now unable to buy. This tendency is emphasised by the recent change of fiscal policy and the definite stimulus to manufacturing enterprise which the introduction of a policy of Protection must give. This will create confidence in India and will assist Indian capitalists and others in enlarging old industries and launching new enterprises. For such enterprises Britain will assuredly be asked to contribute, possibly with capital, certainly with designs, plant, expert technical assistance, and general business co-operation. These new undertakings mean new demands for British machinery, etc., and will in due course help to provide local markets in India for those surplus productions of India the profitable disposal of which is hindered by political and economic difficulties in Europe. So that, all things considered, the prospects ahead consequent upon India adopting a policy of discriminating Protection are quite satisfactory for India, and by no means unsatisfactory for

the United Kingdom. Granted goodwill, confidence, mutual respect and friendly co-operation all round, the changes which the inauguration of the new fiscal policy in India will gradually bring about must, in the long run, prove beneficial to all-to India, to the United Kingdom, and to the Empire generally, which grows in wealth and strength as its component parts develop and expand.

M. DE P. WEBB

(Late member of the Indian Fiscal Commission).

AMONG the primitive tribes of Central Africa the customs relating to warfare are peculiar, and are in many instances of a revolting nature. To the civilised mind the act of eating human flesh and offering sacrifices to spirits is inconsistent with the laws laid down for the protection of human beings, and it is not until one has come in contact with fetishists themselves or lived in a country which has been inhabited by them that the idea of cannibalism can be understood.

Comparatively little is known of animistic worship even by those who have lived many years among these animists, for all the knowledge which has been expounded is gained by social contact with these people for comparatively only a few years.

No records can be found regarding the origin of their religion, for they can neither read nor write, so the performing of these religious acts can only be dictated by the handing down from generation to generation of superstitious traditions. Until these people come into contact with the civilised world they cannot be expected, without further enlightenment, to cease committing these acts which they have been taught will protect them from evils they know to exist.

As we who live in a civilised world gain knowledge by instruction and by digesting the brains of others, these primitive people likewise digest the stories which are told nightly around the village fires. They in turn pass these stories on to their children, and so on from generation to generation.

Many of the present-day cannibalistic ceremonies may have their origin in this way.

The folk-lore stories that exist and differ in almost every race are an example of such transmutative force. It is from this. folk-lore that the true history of a tribe is obtained.

A well-known legend existing among a certain tribe is that years ago a black serpent which lived in the mountains controlled the rainfall, and in order to obtain sufficient rain it was necessary to sacrifice a maiden each year. The legend continued that if this act was not performed there would be a seven years' drought.

It is probable that the origin of this legend was that following a drought a sorcerer was consulted, who ordained that a sacrifice should be made, and that the choice fell on a certain maiden. It so happened that following this sacrifice rain fell. It is a known fact that for many years these offerings were actually made whenever there was a scarcity of rain. The idea of the serpent may be attributed to the loathing of this animal by all the tribes of Central Africa, and therefore the belief that any calamity which befell them, such as a drought, was the act of a serpent.

The whole foundation of animistic belief may be looked upon as the desire to be in favour with spirits who may cause calamitous events to happen and likewise to offer gifts to the evil spirits, who, if satisfied, will bring calamity on an enemy.

It is with this idea that following a battle sacrifices are made and human flesh is devoured, for it is only natural to these animistic worshippers that they should think that by so offering up the victim who has fallen into their hands through the power of their protecting spirits they will please these spirits.

The chief causes of warfare among primitive races in CentralWest Africa are the seizing of arable and good pasture lands and

women.

A case arose many years ago of a chief's son who married a girl belonging to a different tribe. This chief refused to pay the dowry due to the girl's family. The bride's tribe thereupon seized some cattle belonging to the tribe over whom the chief ruled, who in turn retaliated by kidnapping two women.

Retaliation was again resorted to by the other side, who seized a number of women, who were held as hostages. War then ensued. This drama shows how warfare originates among these people.

The first stage is a diplomatic one, and every endeavour during this period is directed towards an amicable understanding. Neutral envoys visit each side and state the terms on which both sides are willing to compromise. Failing an agreement in this manner, an ultimatum is sent by the aggrieved party.

This ultimatum, which is always carried by a distinguished person, varies a great deal in its form.

In the region north and north-west of Nigeria an arrow is sent to which are attached the stalks of certain plants, the number of these stalks signifying the number of cattle claimed as indemnity. Another form is the sending of a bracelet made from the hairs of a cow's tail; the number of hairs used carries the same meaning as the stalks attached to the arrow.

Should the ultimatum be neglected, a messenger informs the enemy that war is declared. This declaration, like the ultimatum, varies a great deal. Objects endowed with magic charm are sent.

1

They may consist of oyster or snail shells, sacred calabashes tied together with strands of bark from a sacred tree, bundles of leaves, flowers, or medicinal herbs, all of which have their respective meaning of ill omen towards the enemy.

As soon as the possibility of war is in sight the poison for the arrows is prepared. This is a very sacred occasion, and is attended by sacrificial ceremonies.

The poisons mostly used are the grains of strophanthus, euphorbia, roots of certain poisonous plants, the heads of vipers, and decomposed animal matter.

The magico-religious acts are usually performed by the chief of the family, who alone is supposed to know the art of mixing the ingredients and to be endowed with the gift of offering up prayers to the soil and other protecting spirits who can make the weapons mortally dangerous. After having consulted for guidance his ancestors, to whom he makes the sacrifice, he orders the male members of his family to assemble outside his compound. All objects necessary for the operation, such as wood, vases, urns, the hearthstones and the sacred cake, are brought. No women are allowed to take part in these ceremonies, and even the cooking of the sacred cake is undertaken by the male members of the family. The superstition that the presence of women will decrease the virulence of the poison is so acute that during the period in which the ceremonies take place no sexual intercourse is allowed, and the women are forced to sleep in the open away from the men, who remain in their huts.

At about 4 p.m. the chief instals the hearthstones and the necessary paraphernalia in an open space outside his compound. The vases are filled with water into which are thrown the grains of strophanthus, viper heads, pepper seeds, and decomposed animal matter, the mixture being slowly heated and well stirred.

At sunset the whole family gather around, and a ‘tam-tam' is inaugurated.

The following day the chief crushes some more strophanthus grains, which are softened by being slowly boiled in a small quantity of water. These are added to the first mixture, which is again boiled until it is reduced to a syrupy liquid. Sugar of euphorbia is then added, after which the glue-like mixture is pasted on to the darts. This performance is repeated many times until the darts are well covered.

The material phase of the operation being completed, the chief of the family sacrifices a hen to his ancestors, and conjures them to guard his family against all evil spirits and to cause the poison to be fatal to the enemy.

Sprinkling the hearthstone with the blood of the hen, he cries: O poison, O poison, I am hungry; I am thirsty; I have