should not say, "He is a prince, and likewise a musician," because there is no natural connection between these qualities; but "also" implies merely addition. "Besides" is used rather when some additional circumstance is named after others -as a kind of after thought, and generally to usher in some new clause of a sentence-as, Besides what has been said, this must be con etymologies, which are generally appended to For similar and equally cogent reasons he declines to heap up authorities, after the manner of Mr. Crabb, preferring to go direct to the existing usage: fications of words. * * * All these variations of meaning (he observes, alluding to the changes that have taken place in the course of time,) help to elucidate national manners and habits of thought, and, as such, are valuable and curious; but though they may occasionally help us, they must not be allowed to influence our decisions with respect to the signi*Language has undergone such changes even within the last sixty or seventy years, that many words, at that time considered pure, are now obsolete; while others, (of which the word "mob" is a specimen), formerly slang, are now used by our best writers, and received, like pardoned outlaws, into the body of respectable citizens. The standard we shall refer to in the present work is the sense in which a word is used by the purest writers and most correct speakers of our own days. It will be seen at once that the author proceeds upon the method which we hold to be the true one-that he liberates the subject from all extraneous illustrations, however valuable or interesting in themselves, and is governed in his definitions by the usage of "the purest writers and most correct speakers of our own days." Here all the requisite conditions are fully recognized; and it only remains to be shown with what amount of success they have been fulfilled. Our space is limited, and our examples must be few and scanty; but the close texture of the matter will be apparent in the briefest specimens. ALSO, TOO, LIKEWISE, BESIDES.-"Too" is a slighter, and a more familiar expression than "also," which has something in it more specified and formal. This is the only difference between the two words. 66 Likewise" has a rather different meaning. Originally it meant "in like manner;" and it has preserved something of that signification; it implies some connection or agreement between the words it unites. We may say, "He is a poet, and likewise a musician;" but we This is very clear, and meets all possible contingencies, except, perhaps, that the word besides" might have been further elucidated as being used not only to introduce something additional, but something remote and unexpected; as when, having exhausted all the arguments arising directly and naturally out of a subject, sudden recourse is had to some distant example, or train of reasoning, wholly unconnected with the subject. All this is, no doubt, included under the general term, "additional circumstances;" but additional circumstances may be linked with the main subject by "too," or "also;" while it is the exclusive province of "besides" to bring in additional circumstances of a foreign character. As an instance of subtle distinction, the following is admirable: SINCERE, HONEST, UPRIGHT." Sincerity may be used in two senses; and this leads to much ambiguity in reasoning. It may either mean, on the one hand, reality of conviction, and earnestness of purpose; or, on the other, purity from all unfairness or dishonesty. Many people overlook this; they will speak of a man's being "sincere," when they mean he has a real conviction that his end is a good one, and imagine this must imply that he is "honest;" whereas he may be "sinin the means he employs for that end. "Honest," in his desire to gain his end, and dishonest on the other hand, is not an ambiguous term; it implies straightforwardness and fairness of conduct. Upright" implies honesty and dignity of character; it is the opposite of " 'honesty "is of “ cunning.” 66 cere ineanness," as It might be questioned whether honesty and cunning are opposed with the writer's usual acumen; but, with that exception, this comparative view of words constantly confounded, and seldom employed with accuracy, is distinguished by its perspicacity. It seldom occurs that we have occasion to dissent from the interpretations of the author; but had it been our intention to have examined the book for the purposes of criticism, we should have found it necessary not only to exhibit its merits in greater detail, but also to point out some passages which, we think, require reconsideration. Here is one : FAITH, BELIEF, CERTAINTY." Belief" is merely an assent of the understanding; "faith" implies also an acquiescence of the will. One who holds an opinion in theory, without following it up in practice, cannot be said to have "faith" in it. Hence a mere assent to the truths of Christianity, such as we give to any mere historical fact, and which does not affect the conduct, cannot be called "faith." It is often supposed that "faith," to be perfect, requires that reason should be put aside, or kept in subjection; but this is credulity, not faith. The real test of faith is, not assenting to anything against our reason, but against our prejudices or interest, which are the chief agents in the belief of the majority. The word "certainty" is generally applied to a firm conviction of the truth of any proposition; but when opposed to "belief," or "faith," it describes more correctly that conviction which is only produced by demonstration, or the evidence of the senses. The distinction here drawn between "belief" and "faith" is curiously inexact, and, at least, requires to be more satisfactorily made out. It is quite true that "faith" influences out conduct, while "belief" is the mere passive assent of the understanding; but to say that the real test of faith is assenting to things against our prejudices or interest, is to assert something more startling and obscure than accurate or philosophical. That prejudices and interest are the chief agents in the belief of the majority, may be quite true; but what has that to do with a book upon synonyms? It is not assumed by the author that prejudices and interest are really chief agents of "belief;" and this allusion to the unreasoning selfishness of the majority is only calculated to confuse, if it do not mislead, the reader. The main distinction between "belief" and "faith" is surely more profound than that which lies upon the surface between theory and practice? There is something more than the assent of the understanding, and its development in action. Perhaps it might be stated somewhat in this way: "Certainty" is the conviction of the truth, or existence, of a thing upon actual demonstration, amounting to personal knowledge of the fact; "belief" is assent to the truth, or existence, of a thing upon testimony, or analogy, or other evidence short of demonstration; and "faith" is assent to the truth, or existence, of a thing founded in a firm reliance on authority in the absence of proof. To believe a thing of the existence of which you have no evidence whatever, merely on the assertion of some person in whose veracity you repose implicit credit, is not, properly speaking, to "believe" it, but to have "faith" in it. You have "faith," for example, in a certain system of medicine; your reliance on it is not a matter of belief, limited by the "assent of your understanding," but takes a wider range of entire confidence over things to which your understanding never had an opportunity of assenting. Before we dismiss this little book (which, from internal evidence, we suspect to be the work of more heads than one), we must add a word upon the clearness of its method. The words are examined in groups of verbs, adjectives, nouns, &c., instead of being thrown indiscriminately together, or buried under an alphabetical arrangement, which, in the early editions of Mr. Crabb's publication, served only as a symmetrical disguise for a heap of disorder. By this excellent plan, simplicity and perspicuity are imparted to the divisions of the work, while a complete index at the end of the volume enables the reader to get at any particular word he wants in a moment. WHAT THE STEAM-ENGINE DOES.-It propels, it rows, it sculls, it screws, it warps, it tows, it elevates, it lowers, it lifts, it pumps, it drains, it irrigates, it draws, it pulls, it drives, it pushes, it carries, it brings, it scatters, it splits, it collects, it condenses, it extracts, it breaks, it confines, it opens, it shuts, it digs, it shovels, it excavates, it ploughs, it thrashes, it separates, it winnows, it washes, it grinds, it crushes, it sifts, it bolts, it mixes, it kneads, it moulds, it stamps, it punches, it beats, it presses, it picks, it hews, it cuts, it slits, it shaves, it saws, it planes, it turns, it bores, it mortices, it drills, it heads, it blows, it forges, it rolls, it hammers, it rasps, it files, it polishes, it rivets, it sweeps, it brushes, it scutches, it cards, it spins, it winds, it twists, it throws, it weaves, it shears, it coins, it prints. 1851.] ASSYRIAN ANTIQUITIES. 279 From the Athenæum. ASSYRIAN ANTIQUITIES. We have received from Colonel Rawlinson | the following important communication, relative to a discovery made by him-in an inscription upon an Assyrian Bull-of an account of the campaign between Sennacherib and Hezekiah. It is a most satisfactory step to have established the identity of the king who built the great palace of Koyunjik with the Sennacherib of Scripture. We have now a tangible starting-place for historical research, and shall (Col. Rawlinson asserts) make rapid progress in fixing the Assyrian chronology. As the scientific Societies of the Metropolis are closed at the present season, perhaps you will allow me to announce in the columns mutilated. Should Monsieur de Saulcy, however, whom the French are now sending to Assyria, find a duplicate of Shalmaneser's annals in good preservation, I think it probable that the name of the king of Israel may yet be recovered. In the second year of Shalmaneser's reign he subjugated the kings of Libnah (?) and Khazita (the Cadytis of Herodotus) who were dependent upon Egypt; and in the seventh year of his reign he received tribute direct from the king of that country, who is named Pirhu, probably for ny, "Pharaoh," the title by which the kings of Egypt were known to the Jews and other Semitic nations. This punishment of the Egyptians by Sargon or Shalmaneser is alluded to in the 20th chap of the Athenæum the heads of a most inter-ter of Isaiah. I have succeeded in determinately identifying the Assyrian kings of the Lower dynasty, whose palaces have been recently excavated in the vicinity of Mosul :-and I have obtained from the annals of those kings contemporary notices of events which agree in the most remarkable way with the statements preserved in sacred and profane history. The king who built the palace of Khorsabad, excavated by the French, is named Sargina (the 17 of Isaiah); but he also bears, in some of the inscriptions, the epithet of Shalmaneser, by which title he was better known to the Jews. In the first year of his reign he came up against the city of Samaria (called Samarina, and answering to the Hebrew) and the tribes of the country of Beth Homri (y or Omri, being the name of the founder of Samaria, 1 Kings xviii. 16, sq. &c.). He carried off into captivity in Assyria 27,280 families, and settled in their Among the other exploits of Shalmaneser found in his annals, are, the conquest of Ashdod, also alluded to in Isaiah xx. 1,—and his reduction of the neighboring city of Jamnai, called Jabneh or Jamneh in the Bible, Jamnaan in Judith, and 'Iάuvsia by the Greeks. In conformity with Menander's statement that Shalmaneser assisted the Cittæans against Sidon, we find a statue and inscription of this king, Sargina, in the island of Cyprus, recording the event; and to complete the chain of evidence, the city, built by him and named after him, the ruins of which are now called Khorsabad, retained among the Syrians the title of Sarghun as late as the Arab conquest. I am not sure how long Shalmaneser reigned, or whether he made a second expedition into Palestine. His annals at Khorsabad extend only to the 15th year; and although the names are given of numerous cities which he captured in Cælo Syria and on the Euphrates-such as Hamath, Beræa, ལ orthography of these three names corresponds very nearly with the Hebrew reading:-Khazakiyahu representing pin, Ursalimma standing for Dhe, and Yahuda for and I rather think, therefore, that the expedition in which, after a three years' siege of Samaria, he carried off the great body of the tribes of Israel, and which is commemorated in the Bible as having been concluded in the.) The rebels then sent for assistance sixth year of Hezekiah, must have taken place subsequently to the building of the palace of Khorsabad. Without this explanation, indeed, we shall be embarrassed about dates :-for I shall presently show that we have a distinct notice of Sennacherib's attack upon Jerusalem in the third year of that king's reign, and we are thus able to determine an interval of eighteen years at least to have elapsed between the last-named event and the Samaritan campaign; whereas in the Bible we find the great captivity to date from the sixth year of Hezekiah, and the invasion of Sennacherib from the fourteenth. to the kings of Egypt; and a large army of horse and foot marched to their assistance, under the command of the king of Pelusium (?). Sennacherib at once proceeded to meet this army; and fighting an action with them in the vicinity of the city of Allaku (?), completely defeated them. He made many prisoners also, whom he executed, or otherwise disposed of. Padiya then returned from Jerusalem, and was re-instated in his government. In the mean time, however, a quarrel arose between Sennacherib and Hezekiah, on the subject of tribute. Sennacherib ravaged the open country, taking "all the fenced cities of Judah,"-and at last threatened Jerusalem. Hezekiah then made his submission, and tendered to the king of Assyria, as tribute, 30 talents of gold, 300 talents of silver, the ornaments of the Temple, slaves, boys and girls and men-servants and maid-servants for the use of the palace. All these things Sennacherib received :—after which he detached a portion of Hezekiah's villages, and placed them in dependence on the cities which had been faithful to him,such as Hebron, Ascalon, and Cadytis. He then retired to Assyria. I now go on to the annals of Sennacherib. This is the king who built the great Palace of Koyunjik, which Mr. Layard has been recently excavating. He was the son of Sargina or Shalmaneser; and his name, expressed entirely by monograms, may have been pronounced Sennachi-riba. The events, at any rate, of his reign place beyond the reach of dispute his historic identity. He commenced his career by subjugating the Babylonians under their king Merodach-Baladan, who had also been the antagonist of his father:-two important points of agreement being thus ob- Now, this is evidently the campaign which tained both with Scripture and with the ac- is alluded to in Scripture (2 Kings xviii. 13 count of Polyhistor. The annals of the third to 17); and it is perhaps the same which is year, however, of the reign of Sennacherib, obscurely noticed by Herodotus, lib. ii. c. 141, which I have just deciphered after the copy and which is further described by Josephus, of an inscription taken by Mr. Layard from Ant. lib. x. c. 1. The agreement, at any rate, one of the bulls at the grand entrance of the between the record of the Sacred Historian Koyunjik Palace, contain those striking points and the contemporary chronicle of Sennacheof coincidence which first attracted my at-rib which I have here copied, extends even tention, and which being once recognized, to the number of the talents of gold and silhave naturally led to the complete unfolding ver which were given as tribute. of all this period of history. In his third year, Sennacherib undertook, in the first instance, an expedition against Luliya, King of Sidon (the 'Exouλaños of Menander), in which he was completely successful. He was afterwards engaged in operations against some other cities of Syria, which I have not yet identified, and whilst so employed, learned of an insurrection in Palestine. The inhabitants, indeed, of that country had risen against their king Padiya, and the officers who had been placed in authority over them, on the part of the Assyrian monarch,-and had driven them out of the province, obliging them to take refuge with Hezekiah, king of Jerusalem, the capital city of Judæa. (The I have not yet examined with the care which it requires the continuation of Sennacherib's chronicle; but I believe that most of the events attributed to that monarch by the historians Polyhistor and Abydenus will be found in the annals. His pretended conflict with the Greeks on the coast of Cilicia will, I suspect, turn out to be his reduction of the city of Javnai, near Ashdod,—the mistake having arisen from the similarity of the name of Javnui to that of Javani, or Ionians, by which the Greeks were generally known to the nations of the East. At any rate, when Polyhistor says that "Sennacherib erected a statue of himself as a monument of his victory (over the Greeks), and ordered his prowess to be inscribed upon it in Chaldæan | characters," he certainly alludes to the famous tablet of the Koyunjik King at the mouth of the Nahr-el-Kelb, which appears from the annals to have been executed after the conquest of the city of Javnai. The only copy which has been yet found of Sennacherib's annals at Koyunjik is very imperfect, and extends only to the seventh year. The relic known as Col. Tayler's cylinder dates from one year later; but I have never seen any account of the events of the latter portion of his reign. His reign, however, according to the Greeks, extended to eighteen years, so that his second expedition to Palestine and the miraculous destruction of his army must have occurred fourteen or fifteen years later than the campaign above described. Pending the discovery of a complete set of annals, I would not of course set much store by the Greek dates; but it may be remarked that Hezekiah would have been still living at the period of the miraculous destruction of Sennacherib's army, even if, as I have thus conjectured, the second invasion of Judæa had occurred fourteen or fifteen years later than the first; for the earlier campaign is fixed to the fourteenth year of his reign, and his entire reign extended to twenty-nine years. I will only further mention that we have upon a cylinder in the British Museum, a tolerably perfect copy of the annals of EsarHaddon, the son of Sennacherib, in which we find a further deportation of Israelites from Palestine, and a further settlement of Babylonian colonists in their place:-an explanation being thus obtained of the passage of Ezra (c. iv. v. 2) in which the Samaritans speak of Esar-Haddon as the king by whom they had been transplanted. Many of the drawings and inscriptions which have been recently brought by Mr. Layard from Nineveh refer to the son of Esar-Haddon, who warred extensively in Susiana, Babylonia, and Armenia,-though as his arms never penetrated to the westward, he has been unnoticed in Scripture history and under the son of this king, who is named Saracus or Sardanapalus by the : Greeks, Nineveh seems to have been destroyed. One of the most interesting matters connected with this discovery of the identity of the Assyrian kings is, the prospect, amounting almost to a certainty, that we must have in the bas-reliefs of Khorsabad and Koyunjik representations from the chisels of contemporary artists, not only of Samaria, but of that Jerusalem which contained the Temple of Solomon. I have already identified the Samaritans among the groups of captives portrayed upon the marbles of Khorsabad; and when I shall have accurately learnt the locality of the different bas-reliefs that have been brought from Koyunjik, I do not doubt but that I shall be able to point out the bands of Jewish maidens who were delivered to Sennacherib, and perhaps to distinguish the portraiture of the humbled Hezekiah. H. C. RAWLINSON. London, August 19. P. S.-It will be seen that in the above sketch I have left the question of the Upper Assyrian dynasty altogether untouched. The kings whom I have identified, and who form what is usually called the Lower Assyrian dynasty, extend over a period from about B.C. 740 to 600. Antecedent to Shalmaneser there must have been, I think, an interregnum. At any rate, although Shalmaneser's father seems to be mentioned in one inscription, there are no means of connecting his line with the Upper Assyrian dynasty. Of that dynasty we have the names of about fifteen kings; but I have never yet found-nor indeed do I expect to find-any historical synchronisms in their annals which may serve to fix their chronology. Implicitly as I believe in the honesty, and admiring as I do the general accuracy, of Herodotus, I should be inclined to adopt his limitation of 520 years for the duration of the Assyrian Empire:-a calculation which would fix the institution of the monarchy at about B.C. 1126, and would bring down the date of the earliest marbles now in the Museum to about B.c. 1000. But, at the same time, I decline without further evidence committing myself to any definite statement on this subject. MR. KINNIBURGH died at Edinburgh, last | week. To him, we believe, is due the credit of raising the deaf and dumb from the position of mere creatures of sense, to the station of moral, intellectual, and responsible beings. He belonged to the Congregational body, of which he had been a minister before he took up the cause of the deaf and dumb; and his loss will be severely felt by the Churches throughout Scotland. |