rather than the rich, women rather than men, patients labouring under disease rather than healthy individuals, persons constitutionally feeble rather than the robust, and also those addicted to intemperance or other excess than those who follow more strictly the precepts of Mohammed. Misery and poverty have been observed by all writers greatly to predispose to this disease."

Typhus, it is well known, follows in the wake of war and famine, and dysentery is most common where want and privation prevail. To illustrate this it is only necessary to point to the Crimean campaign; during the first year the condition of the soldier was most deplorable, and half the troops were ill with fever and dysentery. But far from falling under the blow, England roused her energies to ward it off. Food of the best kind, comforts unlimited, and unremitting attention were freely lavished; they soon all but banished disease and death. But this illustration is incomplete because improved scavenging went hand in hand with improved diet; we must therefore seek another. We again turn to Dr. Williams and read his account of dysentery. In that we find, that in the West Indian islands the mortality from this disease was at one time ten times greater amongst the European soldiers than amongst their officers. This was, after much research, traced to the fact that the former lived chiefly on salted provisions, the latter upon fresh. Reason dictated an alteration; it was made, and the result was a diminution of mortality of ninety per cent. Similar observations have been made at other unhealthy stations, and in our fleets as well as armies.

A thoroughly good diet will enable the system to adapt itself to a poison where a poor diet would not allow of the power being exercised. Nor is it without interest to know that tonic medicines, such as quinine, will enable the system to adapt itself to bear poisons which, without its use, would have fatal influence. Thus I have seen patients apparently

stricken down with typhus recover their usual health in twenty-four hours under the strengthening influence of large doses of quinine. The free use of the same drug will enable persons to live in marshy districts without contracting ague; and I have been told by Dr. Thomson, of Aigburth, and Dr. Clark, late of Cape Coast, that an abundant daily dose of quinine will give to the healthy white man an immunity from yellow fevers second only to that exhibited by the Negroes. When quinine loses its value the addition of steel to it seems to restore its power. It is not that the poison is destroyed in the system by the use of these drugs, for experience shows that such individuals often carry with them to Europe enough of the miasm to produce ague, when by any chance they are debilitated. The sole use of the drugs is to enable the constitution to adapt itself to the altered circumstances, and in this respect they may be compared to the champagne which cures sea sickness.

The whole tenour of these observations shows that the power of adaptability is proportionate to the vital power, and that the stronger the constitution the greater the immunity from external influences. Whenever, therefore, there is a necessity for adaptation, it is well to prepare for it by good. living, rather than by starvation; and by a moderate use of wine, than by floods of cold water; and if a sea voyage is in prospect, beef steaks and porter are more likely to give immunity than soup mâigre and a crust of bread. The English are proverbially better sailors than their Gallic neighbours; and there is little doubt that they derive this peculiarity from their choice of solid foods and heavy drinks, in preference to unsubstantial dishes and light wine. Long may these tastes be retained!

ON THE PHYTOTYPE

OR ARCHETYPE OF THE FLOWERING DIVISION

OF THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM.*

By J. BIRKBECK NEVINS, M.D. LOND., F.B.S.E.

It is now about seventy years since the poet Goethe published a little work, entitled "The Metamorphosis of Plants," in which he laid down the principle that "every part of a flowering plant is a modification of a leaf," and illustrated his proposition by a variety of ingenious arguments, derived from the habits and growth of plants. This doctrine was rejected at first by nearly every naturalist of his day, and even within the last five-and-twenty years the theory was alluded to by teachers of botany, only to be ridiculed and put aside as the fancy of a poet, but unworthy of belief by a botanist. The general arguments by which he supported his opinion were such as the following:

It is well known to gardeners that if a fruit tree is too much manured it runs into leaf, and produces little blossom or fruit; but if the same tree, which has thus become almost barren, is deprived of manure and the branches pruned, the leaves diminish in number and luxuriance, whilst blossoms take their place, and a copious supply of fruit is obtained. The same tree, therefore, can be made to produce leaves or flowers, according to the manner in which it is treated-that is to say, "starve a leaf and it becomes a flower."

Again: double flowers are generally barren. Why? Because the plant being carefully tended and manured, the

The simple cell, variously multiplied and modified, has long been recognised as the type of the cellular, or non-flowering division of Plants. The object of this paper is to shew what is the typical form upon which the vascular, or flowering division of the vegetable world is constructed.

the luxuriance and beauty

stamens and seed vessels become more luxuriant in growth and appearance, and are changed into petals or flowers. But if no care is bestowed upon the double flower it soon runs down and becomes a single one; of the flower are lost: but on the other hand it becomes fruitful, and bears seeds, of which before it was destitute. That is to say, "starve a double flower and the petals change into stamens and seed vessels." This conversion of petals into stamens is readily seen in the water lily, plate 1, fig. 1, a b c d, in which there is every gradation from a perfect petal, down through a half petal and half stamen, to a perfect stamen.

It is also seen in the double dahlia, which soon loses its perfection, and acquires an "eye;" that is, the brightly-coloured delicate petals become changed into dark green coarser leaves; and by a still further change, the green eye disappears and changes into the yellow one, which consists chiefly of stamens and seed vessels.

The appearances sometimes met with in flowers and fruit which are generally called "monstrosities," further illustrate this conversion of one organ into another. For example :—

The green calyx of the cowslip is converted into a yellow organ, not to be distinguished from an ordinary flower. In the auricula, some of the yellow stamens are frequently changed into purple petals, and the flower becomes partially double.

In pl. 1, fig. 2, a b c, the seed-vessel of the columbine is first shown in an almost natural condition, but open; there is then a disappearance of a few seeds, and small leaves tipped with imperfect seeds have taken their place; and in the last figure there is scarcely a seed present, though we can still see a few imperfect ones amongst the large leafy organs which have superseded them.

In the rose these monstrosities are not uncommon; and in pl. 1, fig. 8, a b c, the calyx is seen to be changed into petals,

whilst the stamens are absent, or reduced almost to nothing. From the centre of the flower, also, a branch proceeds, which in one case bears leaves, and in the others a flower, whilst the seed-vessels are in the anomalous condition of half seed-vessels and half leaves.

In the double cherry the monstrous character of the fruit is the ordinary one; for instead of the flower ending in a cherry, it produces two distinct green leaves in its centre, and never bears any fruit at all.

In the pear, represented in pl. 1, fig. 4, the stalk which has borne the fruit has not terminated as is usually the case, but the core of the pear has grown on, and the result is a leafy branch.

In the Epacris, pl. 1, fig. 5, the seed-vessels have not been produced in the ordinary way, but they have grown into leaves, which project from the centre of some of the flowers, whilst others are in their natural condition.

The manner in which these phenomena are connected together, and the so called monstrosities proved to be in accordance with a natural law, is shown in pl. 2, figs. 7 and 8, in which the usual, or as it is called the normal arrangement of leaves is represented in the rose leaves (fig. 7), and the buds (fig. 8.) These organs are naturally arranged in a spiral direction, one above another, but sometimes the space between the leaves does not grow, and they become opposite, as in the pea (pl. 2, fig. 10.) Then the stem, or as it is often called by botanists, "the growing axis," begins again to grow, and after an interval another leaf appears; the stem ceases to grow, but puts out another leaf, and a second pair of opposite leaves is the result. And it may happen, as in the honeysuckle (pl. 2, fig. 11), that the bases of these opposite leaves unite together, as shown in the drawing.

In other instances, the stem ceases to grow between four or five leaves, instead of simply two, and then it is surrounded