discovered or inferred from actual observation; nothing regarding the possible independence of what are actually united. It must be limited, however, to those phenomena in each series which are distinctly shown to have a connection of antecedence or consequence with phenomena of the other series. It is illegitimate to assume that because a certain number of facts in the two series are concomitants, therefore all are so. And from the analogy of the physical phenomena there is a strong presumption that there are facts of a mental kind which have no special physical antecedents. CHAP. I. SECT. II. ness. § 9. We come now to refer to that source of Consciousknowledge regarding the mind which, though last in order of consideration, is first in importance. It is by consciousness only that we can become directly acquainted with mental phenomena. As those phenomena are called physical which can be perceived by the senses either alone or aided by artificial contrivances such as the microscope, so those phenomena are called mental which manifest themselves in consciousness. Since, therefore, consciousness is the only means by which we can become directly cognisant of mental phenomena, it follows that the study of the facts revealed in consciousness must always be the principal method of obtaining psychological knowledge. This study, however, as it is one of great importance, is also one of great difficulty. The art of reflecting upon our own mental operations is one which requires a great deal of attention and cultivation in order to become a CHAP. I. SECT. II. Method of studying phenomena of con sciousness. proficient in it. This depends partly upon the fact that the energies of human beings are first, and usually continue to be, directed outwards to other persons and external objects. It requires an effort to turn the attention inwards to the facts of consciousness; and hence in Greece men had attained to a high state of civilization, and acquired a great deal of knowledge regarding external objects, before any attempt was made to examine and analyse the phenomena of the mind. Another cause of the difficulty of reflection is the great complexity of the phenomena made known in consciousness. This complexity is twofold. In the first place, phenomena are complex from the fact of a great many of them occurring simultaneously or in immediate succession; and it is difficult to separate them the one from the other, so as to ascertain their mutual relations. And in the second place, certain mental actions which seem at first view to be quite simple are in reality very complex in their origin. It is frequently a matter of great difficulty and delicacy to analyse the history of the mind's ability to perform such actions. We are apt to suppose that, because we can perform them easily and readily now, we were always able to do so; and it is difficult to conceive the condition of our minds when we had not our present ability. § 10. As the chief object of psychology is to ascertain the simple and original elements of our complex mental phenomena, and the laws in accordance with which these elements combine and transform themselves into our matured mental activities, the first part of the method of psychology must be analytic. Our first endeavour must be to determine those mental actions which, being of the simplest and most elementary kind, enter as constituent elements. into the complex operations which consciousness reveals. A great deal will depend upon the care and accuracy with which this analysis is performed. If we fail in determining exactly what are the simple elements of our conscious knowledge and what are the simple forms of mental activity; if we include amongst these original elements something which is not original; or if we exclude from them something which is really original, we shall thus introduce important error into our system. The analysis of mental phenomena cannot, as a rule, be effected by simple introspection; and recourse must be had to a variety of observations and experiments suggested to the psychologist by the methods so successfully employed in physical science. Having determined what are the original and simple mental phenomena, the next part of the method will be to determine in what ways these simple phenomena are combined into complex activities or products. Here we shall be concerned with the laws of mental synthesis or integration, in accordance with which the mind unites together into a complete whole the simple phenomena of consciousness. With reference to the discovery of these laws, no special rules can be laid down which would not suggest themselves to any person of ordinary good sense. But generally CHAP. I. SECT. II. CHAP. I. speaking, care must be taken not to multiply the number of laws beyond what is necessary; not to accept as a distinct law what may be resolved into some other. And, on the other hand, care must be taken that no important feature of our knowledge or belief be omitted or left unexplained. The importance of these cautions will be seen when we come to the study of the special subjects of psychology. CHAPTER II. THE ACQUISITION OF PRESENTATIVE KNOWLEDGE. SECTION I. ANALYSIS OF PERCEPTION. CHAP. II. § 11. By way of introducing the problems connected with this subject, let us begin with a particular example. Suppose that we see a flowering tree Example in full bloom a short distance in front of us. The of analysis. cylindrical trunk, the branching stems, the foliage, the numerous clusters of flowers, form a very beautiful object to the eye. The flowers are odorous; the wind is blowing from the direction of the tree towards us; and a pleasing perfume is wafted into contact with our olfactory nerves, giving us the sensation of an agreeable smell. The wind which brings the perfume of the flowers causes the innumerable leaves of the tree to flutter, and thus produces that pleasant murmuring sound of fluttering leaves with which every one is familiar. The tree, we have supposed, is at a short distance from us. This means, that if we walk a short distance towards the object which we see, we shall be able to touch it. Acting upon this hint, we advance and touch one of the leaves of a branch hanging near the C |