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APPENDIX No. II. DECIMAL WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.

THE Consideration of Decimal Weights and Measures seems so naturally to follow the question of decimal coinage, that we make no apology for devoting a little space to it, by way of appendix to our previous papers.

There seems to be no question that decimal coinage once in force, decimal weights and measures must follow. Mr. James Laurie says, "The introduction of decimal weights and measures certainly ought to be simultaneous with a decimal currency;" and he holds it to have been one of the greatest civil glories of France, when her rulers declared, "that all monies, weights, and measures should be determined on the basis of a decimal calculation, on a defined and simple principle."*

Some advocates for decimal weights and measures hold this change to be even more important than the introduction of decimal coinage. Thus Mr. Wood, Chairman of the Inland Revenue, said, at a recent meeting of the Institute of Actuaries, if a system of decimal weights and measures were adopted, decimal coinage must follow, thus making weights and measures the first step. Mr. Bennoch, when interrogated by the Committee as to whether both systems should be changed at the same time, said, very reasonably, "I think it would be well if we could manage it, but it is not essential; our pre

"The foundations of the French system of weights and measures, and of coinage, as dependent upon them, are purely scientific, and not subject to arbitrary change. The standard of Measures was the dimension of the earth-i.e., the distance from the Equator to the pole, which, being divided into 10,000,000 parts, gave the metre =39.371 inches; which, being subjected to decimal multiplications and divisions, establish all the legal measures of length of France.

"For the standard of weights, a cube of pure water, at the temperature of melting ice, measuring in each direction the hundredth part of this metre (called a centimetre), gave a weight which was named a gramme, whose decimal divisions and multiplications are the standard of all authorized weights. The gramme is equal to 15 435 troy grains.

By a decree of the 28th Thermidor, an. iii. (August 19, 1795), the five-franc piece and its divisions were introduced at the rate of 200 francs to the kilogramme-9-10th fine; and in 1803, the deviations of permitted fineness were limited to 1000 above or below the standard; so that a coin is not allowed to exceed 903 in fineness, or 897 in alloy."-Dr. Bowring, p. 179.

sent weights and measures could be calculated in decimal coinage very easily; but I think it would be very convenient that they should bear a relationship to the money calculations, and be regulated by the same principle, and the sooner the better. Every year increases the evil, and makes the change more difficult." The various witnesses examined by the Decimal Coinage Committee expressed different opinions upon the best time for the change.

We foresee much greater difficulty in the introduction of decimal weights and measures than in decimal coinage; and if it were attempted to introduce both simultaneously great confusion would ensue, and the public mind might be turned against the decimal system before its real advantages had been obtained or appreciated. With our coinage, at least, the same standard of value exists throughout the entire kingdom; but with our measures, almost every county has its own peculiar valuations of quantity and denomination; and our weights are equally anomalous and fluctuating.

What we have said with respect to coinage, we may say with still greater emphasis respecting weights and measures,-it is astounding to what inconsistencies custom reconciles us. If we would fully recognize the incongruities of our present system, if system we may dare to call it, we must look through eyes which have not from infancy been dimmed by the constant glare of the absurdities we seek to discover. In the early part of the present century the Americans were desirous of availing themselves of the experience of other countries with a view to the adjustment of their system of weights and measures. furtherance of this project, Mr. John Quincy Adams, a gentleman who was certainly well suited to the task, was deputed to cominence a series of observations and inquiries into the systems of other countries; and, in 1821, his report was completed, and presented to Congress. We have only to do with this report so far as it relates to English weights and measures; but it has been held to be a "production unequalled for the extent of information it conveys on the subject to which it relates."

In

"In the English system," says Mr. Adams,

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every weight and measure is divided by different, and, seemingly, arbitrary numbers, -the foot into twelve inches; the inch, by law, into three barleycorns-in practice sometimes into halves, quarters, and eighths; sometimes into decimal parts, and sometimes into twelve lines; the pound, avoirdupois, into sixteen ounces; and the pound, troy, into twelve, so that while the pound, avoirdupois, is heavier, its ounce is lighter than those of the troy weight. The ton in the English system is both a weight and a measure. As a measure, it is divided into four quarters, the quarter into eight bushels, the bushel into four pecks, &c. As a weight, it is divided into twenty hundreds, of 112 pounds— 2,240 pounds, avoirdupois. The gallon is divided into four quarts, the quart into two pints, and the pint into four gills."

In drawing a comparison between the English and French systems, Mr. Adams speaks still more strongly. "The nomenclature of the English system is full of confusion and absurdity, chiefly arising from the use of the same names to signify different things; the term pound, to signify two different weights, a money of account, and a coin; the gallon and quart, to signify three different measures; and other improper denominations, constantly opening avenues to fraud. The French nomenclature possesses uniformity in perfection, every word expressing the unit weight or measure which it represents, or the particular multiple or division of it. No two words express the same thing; no two things are signified by the same words." Dr. Bowring endorses these comparisons with the weight of his testimony. He says: "Nothing can be more striking than the contrast between the uniformity, precision, and significancy in the French system of coins, weights, and measures, and the irregularity, vagueness, and confusion of the English system."

Mr. Henry Taylor, who has paid great attention to this question, and a few years since published a little book on the subject, which went through several editions, asks for an intelligible reason "why bullion, drugs, groceries, and wool, should continue to be estimated by as many different scales and weights? Who can (continues he) fathom the mysteries of pharmacopoeia? Ounces and drachms may signify, in a druggist's shop, quantities varying in two or three ways. Eight drachms of apothecaries' weight may

mean an ounce of 480 grains, whilst eight drachms, fluid measure, are but 437 grains, still called an ounce. If a receipt is given to mix, it is necessary to learn to what profession the writer belongs before it can be made out-what kind of drachm is intended, and even then there is no certainty. It may be 60, 27-34375, or 547 grains. A pint of apothecaries' measure may contain sixteen ounces, or twenty ounces, avoirdupois. In other cases, the apothecary uses the troy ounce of 480 grains. In short, so vague is the term pint, and so differently measured, that it has frequently become necessary to abandon it, and reckon by the fluid ounce."

Again, he says, "Suppose we turn to the trade in corn-how are the uninitiated to make out the relative prices of our London and provincial markets? A cursory inspection of a few provincial corn lists and circulars will show quotations of prices made in every variety of way, from the Mark Lane quarter to the Scotch boll, the firlot, the load (of different kinds), the coomb, the last, the barrel (of various weights), the ton, the cwt., the pound. Wheat is quoted sometimes per quarter, per 20 stone, per 14 stone, per 480 lbs., 70 lbs., 60 lbs., and 62 lbs. Barley, by the barrel of 14 stone, per 400 lbs., and 392 lbs. Oats, per barrel of 14 stone, per 312 lbs., 420 lbs., and 45 lbs. Indian corn, per quarter, per ton, per cwt., per 20 stone, per 480 lbs., and 196 lbs. Beans, per quarter, and per 65 lbs. Flour or meal, by the sack, the ton, per 280 lbs., 196 lbs., or 240 lbs. Oatmeal, per boll, per 240 lbs., and 261 lbs. Seeds, even of the same kind, are priced in a variety of ways; as the quarter, the cwt., the ton, the last, the barrel; and some of these mean different quantities even in the same market." In a foot note to the above paragraph, Mr. Taylor gives an instance in which five different ways of mea suring, or computing, a single cargo of imported wheat were employed in one port. And he says, properly, if we have no reverence for the declarations of Magna Charta,* we ought at least to compassionate the foreign merchant, now that we permit him to send us his corn.

It was declared, in Magna Charta, that" there shall be one weight and one measure" in England. It was also declared, in 27 Edward III., that one weight, one measure, and one yard be nearly 500 years ago, "We will and establish, used throughout the land.”—Taylor, p. 41.

Lastly, by way of example, "In the meat markets, also, much variety and confusion exists; the farmer selling in one place by the stone of 14 lbs., and in another of 8 lbs. In Smithfield, the latter only is known; and it is curious to find how the Act 5 and 6 William IV. is set at nought. To evade the

penalty for using illegal weights, by an understanding between the salesman and the butcher, the word 'stone' is dropped, but the term 'eight pounds' is retained as its substitute. In the same way, what are called long and short weights, and several other local terms, are continued, contrary to law." C. W., Jun.

The Juquirer.

QUESTIONS REQUIRING ANSWERS.

247. Would some of the readers of the Controversialist inform a young man, who has a great desire to begin painting, the best course to pursue in order to become acquainted with the art? I have not done anything in painting at present but suppose it would be best to begin with water colours before attempting oil paints. I have a fair knowledge of drawing, and think by perseverance I shall be able to execute my drawings with paints. I should be glad if any one could inform me of a good work on easy painting.

-R. F.

248. How is it that gold always maintains its standard, and is not so valuable in New York as it is in Great Britain?

219. I shall be greatly obliged by any of the readers of your valuable Controversialist informing me the price, with the name of the maker, of the following apparatus:-"A hollow 12 inch globe is pierced for stars, and a lamp is placed inside the globe. Through the holes in which the globe is pierced the light of the lamp is thrown on a hollow hemisphere of paper or calico, of from four to six feet in diameter, allowing from ten to twenty persons to see the representation of the starry heavens which is made."-J. C.

250. Will any of the subscribers of the British Controversialist confer a favour on a young man by informing him what course of study it would be best to adopt in order to obtain a thorough knowledge of cotton spinning? I wish not only to learn the art of cotton spinning, but to become acqainted with the principles of mechanics, so as to be able to understand the various mechanical operations in a cotton mill. In short, I wish to acquire that knowledge which will enable me to procure a livelihood by the management of one. If any of your correspondents know of any books that treat upon the subject, I should be obliged if you would mention them, stating the price, and where to be had.-A YOUNG MAN.

ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS.

226. Latin Pronunciation and Poetry -I cannot pass by the appeal of" Enitor" (vol. v., p. 232) without showing my sympathy for his difficulties, and tendering him a little assistance.

1." Pronunciation."-By this I presume that "Enitor" means the phonetic power of the letters and their various combinations. I would strongly urge him to seek oral assistance and advice from Some one who has studied the language, or to get some intelligent schoolboy to hear him read a

few lines of Latin occasionally, and to point out his errors of pronunciation. The present is an age of sympathy with intellectual effort, so that I should imagine "Enitor" may easily find in his circle of acquaintance some one who would grant him so slight a boon. Perhaps, however, his circumstances may be peculiar, or his modesty too strongly developed; I will endeavour, therefore, to frame a few hints on the subject. The pronunciation of ancient Rome has perished; hence, when its language is uttered by a modern tongue, its sounds are generally strongly impressed with the phonetic character of the speaker's native language. The nearest approach to verbal instruction in the general English mode of pronouncing Latin which I can devise may be stated in three rules:-1. Pronounce the consonants as in English. 2. Never drop a vowel sound; thus, bone, fine, sine, are English monosyllables, the same letters in Latin are dissyllables. 3. Endeavour distinctly to mark the quantity of every syllable, giving to each long syllable twice the time of utterance given to a short que. A common mode of meeting the requirements of this rule, is by giving to a long or short Latin vowel the long or short sound of the same vowel in English; thus in měrēri, civium, honorus, the sequence of sounds in the vowels marked is the same as in the phrases "her tree,'

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nigh it," "not so." The vagaries of English pronunciation are often however imitated in defiance of this illustration; bellum is always pronounced with the short sound of our English "e,"-boně, though sometimes pronounced like the Scotch "bonnie," is more frequently pronounced with the long sounds, like our adjective "bony." "Enitor" must, however, keep closely to the rule as to the time of utterance, and utter a short vowel very rapidly if he ever gives it a long or open sound, and vice versa. Peritus, mandānus, with the vowels sounded as in "it," "at," or celeriter, with the "i" sounded as in "light," would raise an unpleasant laugh at his expense. Perhaps he may have heard of the orator who concluded a glowing speech by quoting the motto on our titlepage, unfortunately giving the "e" in prævalebit a short sound, so that to English ears it appeared like "prevail a bit," whereupon some wag moved as an amendment," Magna est veritas, et prevail for ever!" The anecdote is told of a living speaker.

In a few cases an Italianized pronunciation is adopted, and I believe that it is gaining ground slightly. But the varieties and vagaries on this subject are infinite; the style I have imperfectly indicated above will be intelligible to all English

scholars, and with due attention to rule 3, will preserve "Enitor" from any smile-provoking mistakes.

of idle curiosity, he will be able to distinguish the poetical composition by the shape of the lines on the page, and by the capital letters at the commencement of each line. The same remarks hold good throughout the whole range of literature, in any language. In our appreciation of humourous incident, it matters not whether the incident is the

the dramatic exploits of Bob Acres in "The Rivals," any more than whether an amusing blunderer in speech is named Dogberry or Malaprop; the same shadow of coming calamity impends over the first appearance of the heroine in the "Bride of Lammermoor," and over the brideelect of "Hamlet." He who can appreciate Milton's "Areopagitica," and Chatham's burning words on that memorable night when his dying plea for the oppressed rang through the Halls of Westminster, will be able to estimate the speech of Antony over Cæsar's body in Shakspere's play, or the address of Satan to his confederates in "Paradise Lost."

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Again, there is the "beauty" of style. The terseness of Tacitus is far removed from the rhetorical fulness of Cicero-as much so simplicity of Paley from the gorgeousness of Burke. Lucretius is perfectly distinct in style from Virgil, though both wrote in the same metre; the satires of Horace are unlike those of Juvenal, yet both the metre and subject are the same. So of our own poets-Cowper is unlike Crabbe; few would fail to distinguish between Southey and Wordsworth; and (though both are in blank verse) perhaps no one could mistake the epigrammatic point of the "Night Thoughts" for the full majestic swell of the music of Paradise Lost." Hence, this species of appreciation is as much needed to enable us to know poet from poet as poetry from prose.

2. Quantity. A knowledge of quantity (as we have seen) is necessary to him who would venture to quote Latin, whether his quotations are from prose authors or from poets. Nay, it is even Becessary to a certain extent to the study of gram-narrative of the duel in " Peregrine Pickle," or mar (e. g., to distinguish between the 2nd and 3rd conjugations). Now prosody is to a knowledge of quantity what rules of spelling are to orthography, a system of mnemonics to enable us compendiously to store up a knowledge of arbitrary results of usage. "Enitor" therefore must study some clear and compendious form of prosody. I know of none myself which so effectually combines both these qualities as the chapter on Quantity at the end of Kenrick's translation of "Zumpt's Grammar;" it may be transcribed by one whose pen is quicker than his purse is deep, in little more than an hour. I am not acquainted with Alwary's "Prosody;" but if (as I presume) he is the same with "Emmanuel Alvarus de quantitate, &c.," I should fear his book partakes too strongly of the characteristics of the age in which he lived, when unhappy students had to wade through " propria quæ maribus," and such like Serbonian bogs, to a dim perception of the rules of Latin grammar. Quantity, however, like irregular verbs, genders, and spelling, is an obstinate contemner of rules, and other additional means must be resorted to in order to arrive at a tolerable knowledge of this subject. For this purpose "Enitor" must accustom himself to treat Latin quantities like English spelling, and apply to the dictionary whenever he is doubtful; the labour will be ungrateful and tedious at first, but time and perseverance will prevail-" Via Crusis via Lucis," is a truth in matters secular as will as sacred. Few diction- I have not made the above remarks simply to aries, I believe, fail to mark the quantity; if show the want of precision existing in "Enitors" "Enitor's" is an exception, and economy is an words, nor the probable indefiniteness of thought object, Riddle's "School Dictionary," (7s.), or in his mind at the time he penned them; but to "Diamond Dictionary" (4s.), or an old second-point out to him that he need not distress himself hand Gradus, will cheaply supply its lack of with the difficulties of prosody and metre in order service. The use of a grammar in which the to enjoy the advantages and pleasures of classical quantities are marked is also a great help to the literature, and to endeavour to illustrate the true student. I may mention as instances, Professor nature of poetry. Poetry and prose are two Key's Grammar (on the crude form system), or as classes of composition,-two modes of putting a smaller one, Moody's edition of the "Eton thoughts into words:-the one is a dress suited Grammar." to the wear and tear of every-day life; the other is a jewelled robe, and as such is especially adapted for the festive hour or the solemn pageant. As admiring spectators, we instinctively know the one from the other, and our pleasure is not the less because we may happen to have no other means of distinguishing them. Few, per haps, more thoroughly enjoy "the concord of sweet sounds" than myself; yet I have but the most distant idea of the theoretical nature of “a fugue," or of" counterpoint," and can attach no meaning to "the resolution of fifths." I can distinguish an anthem from a glee, and enjoy both; but cannot give any theoretical reason for the distinction. Or, to take an illustration from poetry itself, instead of its twin-born sister, let " Enitor assemble all his friends, and read that thrilling song-" Ye Mariners of England,"-not an Eng lish soul amongst them will fail to pronounce it poetry, and to express his " appreciation" of its worth; but if" Enitor" proceeds to take his audience one by one, and pertinaciously to press the

3. Poetry and Scanning.-How shall" Enitor" know poetry from prose? This opens the question as to what constitutes poetry. "Enitor" wishes to "be able to appreciate the beauties of Latin poetry;"-what does he mean? Can he appreciate the beauties of Latin prose? If he can; that is, if he has trained his reasoning, imaginative, and other faculties, so as to possess a critical judgment, and has also mastered the languagethen, he is equally capable of judging (i.e., appreciating, setting a true value upon) the intellectual beauties of Latin poetry. A fine thought, a striking simile, a hold antithesis, or a group of beautiful imagery, will be neither better or worse because it is found in Horace and not in Livy, or in Cicero and not in Virgil. If" Enitor" can appreciate Cicero's letters he can also appreciate the epistles of Horace; and the fact that the one is in prose, and the other in hexameter verse, is of no more importance than the fact that the one is addressed to Atticus and the other to Mæcenas. As a matter

inquiries-"How do you know that it is poetry?" | (i. e., in point of duration) is fixed, and the return "Can you explain its metrical construction?"-I regular, we have metre or poetry. The proporfancy he will meet with a considerable number of tion which the Arsis bears to the Thesis is called replies of the class ungallantly termed " ladies' the rhythm; metre, therefore, is an artificial sucreasons." cession or combination of rhythms. In Latin The possession of an instinctive power of dis- poetry the Arsis falls on the long syllable, and is tinguishing prose from poetry, however, forms no either in the proportion 1: 1 or 1; the dactyl valid reason against seeking a more scientific test, () being in the former proportion; and the based upon an inquiry into the nature of their trochee () in the latter: these are called dedistinguishing characteristics; and in the case of scending rhythms, and to this class the spondee the dead languages some such additional know- generally belongs, the second syllable being unledge is generally considered necessary to the accented, and the foot being rhythmically regarded student. "Enitor" must judge for himself of the as equivalent to the dactyl. The Anapæst and truth and value of the position I have already Iambus give us the same proportions in the reverse advocated (pp. 193-4) to the effect that the sole order;-they are called the ascending rhythms, necessary and distinguishing characteristic of because we pass through the Thesis before poetry is metre. Proceeding, therefore, on this arriving at the Arsis. A combination of any two assumption, I will now endeavour to offer a few of these simple rhythms, and the suppression of hints for his assistance in the study of metre. a Thesis, give us a compound or artificial rhythm; We have seen that in Latin every syllable has its thus, the Cretic foot () is formed of a double quantity, which (with very few exceptions) is tixed Trochaic rhythm, with the suppression of the and unchangeable. Every sequence of two or Thesis in the second Trochee. Viewed in this more quantities is called a foot. Now, since a light, Latin metre addresses itself to the ear, and long syllable is to occupy twice the time of utter- becomes to a great extent accentual in its characance of a short one, let the former be indicated by ter, though it still is based on quantity, and can the figure 2, and the latter by 1; every possible only be thoroughly understood by those who have foot, therefore, may be briefly indicated by this studied quantity. Accent naturally owes much notation. The dissyllabic feet are the spondee of its effect to its harmonizing with the vocalized (2,2), the pyrrhic (1,1), the iambus (1, 2), and the articulations of a language; hence, I imagine that trochee (2, 1); examples,-princeps, brevis, preces, we never can feel the beauty of Latin poetry as primus. The trisyllabic feet are the Molossus poetry (i.e., metrical composition), and independent (2,2,2), the Tribrach (1, 1, 1), the Dactyl (2, 1, 1). of its subject-matter and graces, in the way that the Anapæst (1, 1, 2), the Amphibrach (1, 2, 1), the the Romans themselves did. We can have little Amphimacer or Cretic (2, 1, 2), the Bacchius (1, idea of the effect produced by the constant clash2,2), and the Anti-bacchius (2, 2, 1); examples,ing of an accent of speech independent (as a rule) ignavum, rapidus, sedulus, vigilans, fidelis, carni- of quantity, and an accent of metre based upon fex, honestas, cantator. We need not mention quantity. The few instances occurring in our any others; every sequence of four syllables is necessarily a combination of two dissyllabic feet; a simple calculation will show that they are 16 in regularity. This kind of reading has received the number, and their names may be found in most very apt title of " sing-song," i. e., singing prose so grammars. A moment's consideration will show as to turn it into song. By disregarding punctua that Latin prose is composed of feet, but they fol- tion, and natural and explanatory accent, I below each other as accident may determine; in lieve we might utterly uproot prose from cur poetry, on the other hand, they follow in a re. language, and speak horrible poetry instead. gular artificial order, and this artificial arrangean illustration of this point, our editors will excuse ment is named metre. When "Enitor" has an attempt to make an essentially prosaic passage mastered the art and mystery of quantity, the from their pen (see the "Notices to Corresponsimpler kinds of metre will be understood with dents" on the cover of the June No.) sound like ease and recognized at a glance. Thus the Hex-pentameter verse, by the force of determined singameter verse has six feet; the first four may be either dactyls or spondees, the fifth is generally a dactyl, and the sixth always a spondee. This and the quantity of each syllable being known, the first line of the Eneid is at once seen to be an Hexameter.

Armă virum que că | no Trō | jæ qui
primus ab oris.
I

The marking off each foot by a dividing line, or
by a sensible pause of the voice, is called scanning.
Latin metre, therefore, from its very nature, is
apparent to the eye of every one acquainted
thoroughly with "quantity."

Again, in speaking or reading, the voice naturally rises and falls. This is called by the Latin grammarians Arsis and Thesis; and in prose it Occurs without any regular proportion, and at indefinite intervals. But where the proportion

In the case of children, and bad or inexperienced readers, there is often an approach to

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song. I have marked the feet, and accented certain syllables in accordance with the view of Latin metre, in its accentual aspect, given above in the text. To produce the oral effect required, the reader must dwell upon the syllables accented with a strong emphasis, and pass over the others rapidly and lightly.

"There' must be negligence on' the' part of your bookseller'

Or his agent | as' most of the back' num

bers of

Our' magazine' may I be'll had' upon | or'dering them."

I have just altered the two last words in order to On the other hand, by reciting poetry at a uniform eke out the requisite syllables for the last line. pitch we may metamorphose it into prose. Let couplet quoted vol. v., p. 195, and keep his voice any reader recite the strongly marked trochaic at a uniform pitch by the aid of a piano, and I think he will find that they are undistinguishable from prose.

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